BIOCHEM 2EE3 Lecture Notes - Lecture 12: Ketone Bodies, Homeostasis, Performance-Enhancing Substance

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limetoad583

28 Mar 2017

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Consume food to provide fuel to our body to synthesize atp. Cells need energy for housekeeping activities such as dna replication, cell division, protein synthesis, maintaining osmotic gradient of sodium and potassium ion etc. Three macronutrients that provide fuel: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins. Glucose is broken down to pyruvate through glycolysis then to acetylcoa through the pyruvate dehydrogenase reaction then to carbon dioxide through the citric acid cycle. Reducing equivalents are nadh and fadh2 which are converted to atp through the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Fats are broken down from triacylglycerols to free glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol will feed into glycolysis while the fatty acids will be broken down to acetylcoa through beta oxidation acetylcoa will feed into the citric acid cycle. Again, reducing equivalents are generated from beta-oxidation and the citric acid cycle are then converted to atp through electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation.

Related Questions

1. C6H12O6 + 6O2 Ã 6CO2 + 6H2O Glucose is being _____ to _____ and oxygen is being _____ to _____. a. oxidized; carbon dioxide; reduced; water b. oxidized; water; reduced; carbon dioxide Incorrect c. reduced; water; oxidized; carbon dioxide d. reduced; carbon dioxide; oxidized; water

2. Which of the following stages in the breakdown of the piece of toast you had for breakfast generates the most ATP? a. the citric acid cycle Incorrect b. glycolysis c. the digestion of starch to glucose d. oxidative phosphorylation

3. Which of the following is a catabolic pathway? a. gluconeogenesis b. production of starch Incorrect c. glycolysis d. production of glycogen

4. Per molecule, the oxidation of a fatty acid results in _____ energy storage than the oxidation of glucose. a. the same b. less Incorrect c. more d. None of the above; fatty acids cannot be oxidized.

5. Of the eight reactions in the citric acid cycle, how many are oxidation-reduction reactions? a. one b. two c. three d. four e. five

6. The process of glycolysis transfers the energy in sugar molecules into the stored energy of activated carriers such as ATP and NADH. Which statement is true about glycolysis? a. Only eukaryotic organisms do glycolysis. b. The ten reactions of glycolysis are identical in all eukaryotic cells, but are different in prokaryotic cells due to their diverse metabolic strategies. Incorrect c. The ten reactions of glycolysis are identical in almost all living organisms on the planet. d. There are many ways to oxidize glucose and transfer energy into activated carriers; the diversity of organisms on the planet is reflected in the diversity of their mechanisms of glycolysis.

7. Referring to the sentence completed in #13 above, the purpose of the latter reaction (in active muscle cells) is to _____. a. accumulate lactic acid in the cell, which provides additional energy for the production of ATP Incorrect b. slow down glycolysis until oxygen becomes available again c. accelerate the Krebs cycle, which will restore the oxygen supply d. regenerate NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue in the absence of oxygen

8. What are the products of the citric acid cycle? a. carbon dioxide, NADH, FADH2 and GTP b. carbon dioxide, NAD+, FAD and GTP c. NADH, FADH2, and acetyl CoA Incorrect d. carbon dioxide and water

9. Which statement is true about enzymes? a. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions because they make inherently endergonic reactions exergonic. b. Each enzyme in a cell can catalyze many different chemical reactions involving chemically different substrates. Incorrect c. Enzymes can only catalyze reactions in one direction. d. After catalyzing a reaction, an enzyme is permanently altered and can no longer bind substrate. e. None of the above is true. 1

10. âG measures the change in free energy in a system as it converts reactant (Y) into product (X). When [X] = [Y], âG is equal to _____. a. RT b. ÎGÂ° + RT c. ÎGÂ° d. ln [X]/[Y]

11. The âGÂ° for the hydrolysis of ATP is -7.3 kcal/mol. What conditions in the cell would lead to a âG for ATP hydrolysis of -11 kcal/mol? a. An increase in the ATP/ADP ratio b. An increase in anabolic activity in the cell c. Transport of ATP out of the compartment where the reaction is occurring Incorrect d. A decrease in the ATP/ADP ratio

12. In the first reaction of glycolysis, a phosphate transferred from ATP to a glucose molecule to produce glucose-6-phosphate and ADP. Under conditions existing in the cell, the free energy change for this reaction is -8.0 kcal/mole. Which of the following statements is true? Recall that the âGÂ° for the hydrolysis of ATP is -7.3 kcal/mol. a. Glucose concentrations in the cell are always low, making this reaction more favorable than would be expected. b. This reaction is less favorable than would be expected, given the âGÂ° of ATP hydrolysis. c. Glucose-6-P concentrations in the cell are very low relative to glucose concentrations, making the reaction more favorable than would be expected. d. The âGÂ° for the addition of a phosphate to glucose must be -0.7 kcal/mole.

13. Protein E can bind to two different proteins, S and I. The binding reactions are described by the following equations and values: E + S --> ES Keq for ES = 10 E + I> EI Keq for EI = 2 Given the equilibrium constant values, which one of the following statements is true? a. When S is present in excess, no I molecules will bind to E. b. E binds I more tightly than S. c. The binding energy of the ES interaction is greater than that of the EI interaction. d. Changing an amino acid on the binding surface of I from a basic amino acid to an acidic one will probably make the free energy of association with E more negative.

For each question,choose the ONE BEST And Give Best Explanation [No Explanation nopoints :( ]

1. Metabolismis

A. the means by whichDNA is stored.

B. the sum of all theanabolic and catabolic reactions in a cell.

C. the reactions thatbreak fuel molecules down to gain energy.

D. the reactions thatsynthesise molecules in the cell.

E. the sum of all thereactions taking place in the mitochondrial matrix.

2. The Krebscycle

A. breaks downpyruvate.

B. oxidizes two-carbonunits to produce carbon dioxide and reduced coenzymes.

C. oxidizesglycerol.

D. drives H+ out of themitochondrial matrix.

E. uses GTP rather thanATP to supply phosphate groups.

3. Which of thefollowing statements about the glycolysis pathway in the cytosol isincorrect?

A. It makes ATP.

B. It makesacetyl-CoA.

C. It interacts with thepentose phosphate pathway.

D. All but three stepsare reversible and therefore also operate in gluconeogenesis.

E. It is oxidative underaerobic conditions.

4. %u03B2oxidation

A. breaks the%u03B2-glycosidic bonds in cellulose.

B. uses acetyl-CoA,NADH, and FADH2 to produce long-chain fatty acids.

C. generates pentosesugars.

D. oxidizes fatty acidsto give acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH2.

E. Is part oftriacylglycerol biosynthesis.

5.Gluconeogenesis is not capable of making glucose from

A. alanine.

B. lactate.

C. glycerol.

D. palmitate.

E. 2-oxoglutarate.

6. Which of thefollowing statements is incorrect concerning photosynthesis ingreen

plants?

A. It generates ATP,NADPH, and oxygen.

B. It adds carbondioxide to a five-carbon sugar that is then cleaved to form twomolecules of

phosphoglycerate.

C. Its enzymes are foundin the mitochondria.

D. It uses light energyto drive the splitting of water.

E. Its enzymes are foundin the chloroplasts.

7. Positivefeedback is operating

A. when adenosinemonophosphate activates phosphofructokinase.

B. when cAMP activatestranscription of the lac operon.

C. when tryptophaninhibits transcription of the trp operon.

D. whenN-acyl-HSL promotes transcription of the luxoperon.

E. in all the examplesabove.

8. ATP

A. is converted to ADPas H+ enters the mitochondrial matrix.

B. is a coenzyme.

C. passes through theouter mitochondrial membrane by simple diffusion.

D. cannot be made in theabsence of oxygen.

E. concentrations fall to a low levelin resting cells.

lilacwoodchuck496

Food that we consume is composed of very complex molecules. During the digestive process these compounds are broken down into smaller and smaller subunits in preparation for use by the body as building blocks needed for the many components of the human body.

The digestion process begins at the mouth. Food enters and then accessory digestive organs like the tongue, teeth, and salivary glands break down the substance. It then travels through the pharynx and esophagus into the stomach, where the stomach acid further breaks down the food (UXL Complete Health Resource). After that, the food travels through the small and large intestines where a majority of its nutrients are absorbed. The waste then exits through the end of the large intestine which is made up of the rectum and anus. After the teeth assist in chewing, food rolls over the tongue and reaches stomach through the esophagus within 8 seconds. General Tsoâs Chicken and Rice consist of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. However, carbohydrates are digested easily than the fats and proteins. After broken down in the stomach, most of the nutrients are absorbed from the small intestine, and it takes 6 to 8 hours to pass through small intestine. The remaining unabsorbed material, âmoves very slowly through the large intestine where the final absorption of water and other nutrients take placeâ (UXL Complete Health Resource). The parasympathetic nervous system encourages the food to move through the digestive tract and motivates digestion process. The sympathetic nervous system works against the parasympathetic nervous system by decreasing the contraction and relaxation of the digestive tract (Taylor). Mouth produces saliva, which contains amylase. Amylase is key in digesting carbohydrates. The stomach produces hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor, and mucus (Taylor). Hydrochloric acid kills the bacteria and other organisms that enter the stomach, and then continues to activate pepsinogen. Pepsinogen then changes into pepsin, which digests protein peptides. The pancreas produces trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, lipases, and phospholipases. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases digest proteins, whereas lipases, phospholipases digest lipid molecules. Small intestine produces lactase, sucrase, maltase, lipases, and peptidases. Lactase, sucrase, and maltase digest carbohydrates (UXL Complete Health Resource). Saliva glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are the accessory organs of the digestive process. Saliva glands produce mucus and amylase which digests starch into simple sugars and binds food particles together, while lubricating the palette when one swallows. The pancreas produces amylase, lipases, and proteinases etc. These digestive juices are responsible for breaking down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The liver is the largest gland in the body, âIt produces bile salts to emulsify lipids. It detoxifies metabolic end products to protect the bodyâ (UXL Complete Health Resource). Gallbladder stores bile juice. The chicken in the General Tsoâs contains proteins. Proteins cannot be digested in mouth. However, the mouth can physically digest chicken into smaller pieces. These partially digested chicken pieces travel to stomach, where it is digested by pepsin. The pancreas produces trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, lipases, and phospholipases (UXL Complete Health Resource). The chicken is then digested by trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases in the duodenum of the small intestine. After the complete digestion, the chickenâs proteins change into amino acids, which are then absorbed into blood. The rice of the General Tsoâs is a carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are partially digested inside the mouth by amylase. The rest of the rice travels to the stomach where it is digested by pancreatic juices and enzymes that are produced by small intestine. The digestion of the rice produces monosaccharides that absorb into the blood stream. The left over, and undigested parts of the chicken and rice that are useless to the body are excreted by large intestine through rectum.

1) Based on your finding in the Module 3 Report, begin the Module 4 Report by identifying which metabolites are being absorbed and specifically which vessels of the cardiovascular or lymphatic system are the initial vessel of transport from the digestive system. 2) From the point that the specific metabolites are absorbed from the GI tract, trace the path of the resulting metabolites to the following locations in the body for incorporation into the body structure: Metabolites of protein for use in the Gastrocnemius muscle for muscle maintenance. Metabolites of the carbohydrates for energy to contract the cardiac muscle cells. Metabolites of fat to incorporate into the myelin sheaths of the Schwann cells of the Trigeminal nerve that innervates the Masseter muscle. Water for incorporation into the synovial fluid of the hip joint. Iron for incorporation into red blood cells in the bone marrow of the sternum.

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BIOCHEM 2EE3 Lecture Notes - Lecture 12: Ketone Bodies, Homeostasis, Performance-Enhancing Substance

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