BIOLOGY 151 Study Guide - Final Guide: Covalent Bond, Hydrogen Bond, Protein Folding

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FINAL EXAM: BIO 151

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES AND CELL THEORY

● 4 basic biological molecules:

○ Protein

■ Action molecules in the cell

■ Monomer: amino acid

■ Other molecules that are “polar” like to interact with water

● Polar molecules dissolve in water b/c they form hydrogen bonds

● Nonpolar molecules group together in water b/c the water

molecules form hydrogen bonds with one another

■ Every amino acid has an amino group, a carboxyl group, and an R group

■ The peptide bond is a covalent bond between one amino acid’s carboxyl

group and another’s amino group

■ Protein Folding: when a cytosolic protein folds, it hids the hydrophobic

amino acids inside and so the hydrophilic ones are on the outside

■ Structural, regulatory, contractile, protective; can serve in transport,

storage, or membranes

● Enzymes: produced by living cells; are catalysts in biochemical

reactions

○ Can function to break molecular bonds/rearrange

bonds/form new bonds

■ Hormones: chemical signaling molecules (proteins/steroids) secreted by

an endocrine gland that controls specific processes like growth,

development, metabolism, reproduction

■ Denaturation: loss of function and can be caused by permanent changes in

shape of protein

■ Amino acids: monomers that make up proteins

● Central carbon atom bonded to an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl

group (-COOH) and a hydrogen atom

○ Has another variable atom bonded to the central carbon

atom (R group)

■ R group determines the chemical nature of the

amino acid w/in its protein (basic, acidic, polar,

nonpolar)

● sequence/number of amino acids determine a protein’s shape, size,

function

● Attached to another amino acid by a covalent bond (peptide bond)

● Polypeptide: polymer of amino acids

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■ The sequence for every protein is determined by the gene that encodes it

● Change in the gene sequence can lead to a different amino acid

being added to the polypeptide chain

● In the B-pleated sheets, the “pleats” are formed by hydrogen

bonding between atoms on the backbone of the polypeptide chain

○ Pleated segments align parallel to each other and hydrogen

bonds form between the same pairs of atoms on each of the

aligned amino acids

● Tertiary structure is caused by chemical interactions between

various amino acids and regions of the polypeptide

○ Interactions among the R groups create the 3D structure

○ When protein folding occurs, the hydrophobic R groups of

the nonpolar amino acids are on the inside of the protein

while the hydrophilic R groups are on the outside

○ 3-D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain

interactions

● Secondary protein structure: hydrogen bonding of the peptide

backbone causes the amino acids to fold into a repeating pattern

● Quaternary protein structure: more than one amino acid chain

● Example of denaturation: the albumin protein in the liquid egg

white when placed in a hot pan and changes from a clear substance

to an opaque white substance

○ Nucleic acids

■ A small piece of DNA is being transcribed into mRNA by polymerase

■ Transfer information and energy

■ Polymer is a nucleic acid

● Information storage, order of bases acts as a code, instructions for

making proteins

■ Charges help to interact with H2O

■ DNA: genetic material found in all living organisms, from single celled-

bacteria to multicellular mammals

■ RNA: protein synthesis; used to communicate with the rest of the cell

■ Nucleotides: monomers that make up DNA/RNA

● Nitrogenous base, a pentose (5 carbon) sugar, and a phosphate

group

○ Carbohydrates

■ Store energy and act in identification

■ Transporting potential energy

■ Some are soluble/insoluble

■ Provide energy to the body (through glucose which is a simple sugar)

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■ Monosaccharides: simple sugars (common is glucose)

● # of carbon atoms ~3-6

● -ose

■ Photosynthesis: plants synthesize glucose using co2 and water by this

■ Disaccharides: form when 2 monosaccharides goes through dehydration

reaction

● (-OH) of a monosaccharide combines w/ a hydrogen atom of

another mono. While releasing a molecule of h2o and forming a

covalent bond between atoms in the 2 sugar molecules

■ Polysaccharide: long chain of monosaccharides linked by a covalent bond

● Starch: stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of amylose

and amylopectin

● Where excess starch is stored

● Glycogen: storage form of glucose in humans/ other vertebrates

and made up of monomers of glucose

○ It’s the animal version of starch stored in liver and muscle

cells

● Cellulose: natural biopolymers; makes up the walls of plants

○ Cellulose passing through our digestive system is dietary

fiber

■ Chitin: nitrogenous carb; made of repeating units of modified sugar

containing nitrogen

○ Lipids/phospholipids

■ Energy storage and structural

■ Has a nonpolar tail and polar head group

■ Hydrophobic bc they’re nonpolar molecules

■ Hydrocarbons that include only nonpolar carbon-carbon

■ Provide insulation from environment for plants and animals

■ Fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids

■ Fat: ex. Triglyceride consists of glycerol and fatty acids

● Glycerol: organic compound w/ 3 carbon atoms, 5 hydrogen

atoms, 3 -OH groups

● Triglycerides: 3 fatty acids

● Saturated fatty acid: saturated w/ hydrogen/single bonds/packed

tightly together and are solid at room temp

● Unsaturated fatty acid: when the hydrocarbon chain contains a

double bond

○ It can help improve blood cholesterol levels

● Omega-3 fatty acids are important in brain function and normal

growth/development

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Document Summary

Other molecules that are polar like to interact with water. Polar molecules dissolve in water b/c they form hydrogen bonds. Nonpolar molecules group together in water b/c the water molecules form hydrogen bonds with one another. Every amino acid has an amino group, a carboxyl group, and an r group. The peptide bond is a covalent bond between one amino acid"s carboxyl group and another"s amino group. Protein folding: when a cytosolic protein folds, it hids the hydrophobic amino acids inside and so the hydrophilic ones are on the outside. Structural, regulatory, contractile, protective; can serve in transport, storage, or membranes. Enzymes: produced by living cells; are catalysts in biochemical reactions. Can function to break molecular bonds/rearrange bonds/form new bonds. Hormones: chemical signaling molecules (proteins/steroids) secreted by an endocrine gland that controls specific processes like growth, development, metabolism, reproduction. Denaturation: loss of function and can be caused by permanent changes in shape of protein.

Related Questions

The type of macromolecule found in highest concentration on a weight basis in a HeLa cell is

protein.

lipid.

polysaccharide.

nucleic acid.

water

Co and Zn ions are required by humans in

microgram amounts.

gram or near gram amounts.

kilogram amounts.

d. milligram amounts.

Which description best characterizes the length of a hydrogen bond between water molecules?

About the same length as the calculated van der Waals distance for two water molecules.

About the same length as a covalent O----H bond.

Shorter than a covalent O---H bond.

Longer than a covalent O---H bond, but shorter than the calculated van der Waals distance between water molecules.

Which of the following statements about water is not true?

Water will hydrogen bond into highly ordered structures or "cages" around non-polar molecules.

The electron-rich oxygen atom of one water molecule can interact with an electron-poor hydrogen on another water molecule to form a hydrogen bond.

Water is a key player in the energetics of the hydrophobic effect.

In an ice crystal water molecules pack into open lattices consisting of five-membered oxygen rings.

At 25 degrees celsius liquid water is about 85% as hydrogen bonded as the water in ice, with each molecule in an average of 3.4 hydrogen bonds.

Which of the following is the strongest?

Ionic interactions

Permanent dipole - permanent dipole interactions

London dispersion forces

Co-linear hydrogen bonds

Which of the following is the best explanation for the hydrophobic effect?

It is caused by the attraction of hydrophobic groups for each other.

It is an entropic effect caused by the tendency of hydrophobic groups to increase their entropy by associating with other hydrophobic groups.

It is an entropic effect, caused by the tendency of water molecules to increase their entropy by excluding hydrophobic groups, which they must otherwise surround with highly ordered structures.

It is caused by the attraction of water for hydrophobic groups.

It is an entropic effect, caused by the tendency of water molecules to increase their entropy by forming highly ordered structures around the hydrophobic groups.

Which of the following is NOT defined as a buffer? (pKa PIPES-H⁺ = 6.76; pKa MOPS-H⁺ = 7.15; pKa HEPES-H⁺ = 7.47)

0.15 M MOPS, pH 6.50

0.05 M HEPES-H⁺ / 0.04 M HEPES

0.20 M PIPES, pH 7.97

0.01 M HEPES, pH 7.30

Question 401 pts

Kinetic energy is the stored energy that can be used for motion.

True

False

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Question 411 pts

When an electron is transferred from one atom to another, and the two atoms are then electrically attracted to one another, a(n) ________________ bond is formed.

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Question 421 pts

Changing the number of ____________ of an atom would change the chemical properties of the atom.

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Question 431 pts

Forming molecules and breaking down molecules in biological organisms usually requires the use of _________ to help the reaction proceed faster.

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Question 441 pts

Organic molecules have a core composed of .

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Question 451 pts

The building blocks of carbohydrates are

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Question 461 pts

Water molecules crossing a membrane from high to low concentration is .

active transport

cell fate

facilitated diffusion

osmosis

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Question 471 pts

Choose the membrane molecule responsible for the passage of polar molecules and ions into and out of the cell.

phospholipids

transmembrane channel proteins

cell surface proteins

carbohydrate chains

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Question 481 pts

The simplest cells are .

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Question 491 pts

Which of the following membrane bound organelles are found inside bacterial cells:

nucleus

organelles are not found in prokaryotic cells

mitochondria

chloroplasts

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Question 501 pts

Which of the following is a specialized components of the cell, is associated with the rough endoplasmic reticulum, and is responsible for making proteins.

Flag this Question

Question 511 pts

Proteins are sorted, modified, and packaged by the _____________ and later transported to the outside of the cell.

ribosomes

golgi bodies (golgi apparatus)

nucleus

mitochondria

Flag this Question

Question 521 pts

Dehydration synthesis is a process of linking two smaller subunits together to form a polymer. Which of the following statements below is true of dehydration synthesis?

Oxygen is consumed.

A water molecule is removed from the molecules.

A water molecule is added to the molecules

Carbon dioxide is given off.

Flag this Question

Question 531 pts

Proteins are made up of _________ held together by peptide bonds.

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Question 541 pts

Which of the following gives an amino acid its properties?

NH2

R Group or functional group

COOH

Flag this Question

Question 551 pts

The final three-dimensional shape of a protein that includes the bonding of two or more polypeptide chains is call its _____ structure.

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Question 561 pts

How do DNA and RNA differ?

all statements are differences between DNA and RNA.

DNA is double stranded while RNA is single stranded.

They have different sugars.

Thymine is present in DNA but not in RNA.

Flag this Question

Question 571 pts

Which of the following is a component of a DNA nucleotide?

phosphate

a nitrogen containing base

All are components of a nucleotide.

5-carbon sugar

Flag this Question

Question 581 pts

Cell membranes are made up of several different types of molecules. Select the membrane molecule below that is made up of a polar region and two non-polar fatty acid tails.

transmembrane proteins

carbohydrate chains

phospholipids

cell surface proteins

Flag this Question

Question 591 pts

Two organelles which are believed to have once been free-living bacterial cells are ____________ and ______________.

chloroplasts and mitochondria

golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum

ribosomes and nucleolus

peroxisomes and lysosomes

Flag this Question

Question 601 pts

The is an extensive system of internal membranes responsible for producing carbohydrates and lipids.

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

rough endoplasmic reticulum

nucleolus

mitochondria

sangriarat617

I JUST NEED SIMPLE/BASIC ANSWERS NOT LONG ANSWERS

1. Explain how life can be viewed at different levels of biological complexity.

2. Explain how researchers study biology at different levels, ranging from molecules to ecosystems.

3. Distinguish between discovery-based science and hypothesis testing, and describe the steps of the scientific method.

4. Tell whether a given topic or research study is about biology. Tell whether that study is discovery-based or hypothesis testing, or both.

5. If presented with a research study, propose what the Research Question was.

6. If presented with an example, tell whether a statement is a hypothesis, theory or law and why you think so.

Describe the general structure of atoms and their constituent particles.

Relate atomic structure to the periodic table of the elements. List the elements that make up most of the mass of all living organisms.

Explain how a single element may exist in more than one form, called isotopes, and how certain isotopes have importance in human medicine.

Compare and contrast the types of atomic interactions (bonds) that lead to the formation of molecules.

Tell which atoms and how many of each make up a given molecule (formula or diagram).

For a bond in a given molecule, tell whether the bond is covalent, and if it is, tell whether it is polar or nonpolar and why you think so.

Explain the concept of electronegativity and how it contributes to the formation of polar and nonpolar covalent bonds. Tell whether a given atom is electronegative or not, and why you think so. Label partial charges in a polar bond.

Draw five water molecules and label the atoms and bonds within and between the 5 molecules.

Describe how hydrogen bonding determines many properties of water.

List the properties of water that make it a valuable solvent, and distinguish between hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances.

Explain how water has the ability to ionize into hydroxide ions (OH^â) and into hydrogen ions (H⁺), and how the H⁺ concentration is expressed as a solution's pH.

Explain the properties of carbon that make it the chemical basis of all life.

Describe the variety and chemical characteristics of common functional groups of organic compounds.

Diagram how small molecules may be assembled into larger ones by dehydration reactions and how hydrolysis reactions can reverse this process.

List the four major classes of organic molecules and macromolecules found in living organisms

If shown a molecule, tell whether it is organic or not and how you know.

If shown an organic molecule, tell whether it is an amino acid, nucleotide, fatty acid, steroid, monosaccharide or disaccharide and how you know.

Distinguish among different forms of carbohydrate molecules, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Relate the functions of plant and animal polysaccharides to their structure.

List the several different classes of lipid molecules important in living organisms.

Diagram the structure of a triglyceride and explain how it is affected by the presence of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Explain why some fats are solid at room temperature, and others are liquid.

Discuss how fats function as energy-storage molecules.

Apply knowledge of the structure of phospholipids to the formation of cellular membranes.

Describe the chemical nature of steroids and give an example of their biological importance.

Give examples of the general types of functions that are carried out in cells by different types of proteins.

Explain how amino acids are joined to form a polypeptide, and distinguish between a polypeptide and protein.

Describe the levels of protein structure and the factors that determine them. If shown a protein diagram, label parts that represent its levels of structure. Tell what kind of research techniques are used to determine protein structure.

Outline the bonding forces important in determining protein shape and function.

Explain what domains are and their importance in proteins.

Describe the three components of nucleotides.

Distinguish between the structures of DNA and RNA.

Tell how certain bases pair with others in DNA and RNA.

Discuss the 4 major categories of organic macromolecules found in living things, including structure, function and location of each.

Compare and contrast the general structural features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Outline the differences in complexity among bacteria, animal, and plant cells.

Describe how a eukaryotic cell can be viewed as four interacting systems: the nucleus, cytosol, endomembrane system, and semiautonomous organelles.

Explain how the proteome underlies the structure and function of cells.

Analyze how cell size and shape affect the surface area/volume ratio.

Identify the location of the cytosol in a eukaryotic cell and list its general functions.

Describe the three types of protein filaments that make up the cytoskeleton. Identify which underlie cilia, flagella, centrioles, the nuclear lamina, and the brush border. Tell which are readily assembled and disassembled. Tell which are involved in various cell shape changes or movements.

Explain how motor proteins interact with microtubules or actin filaments to promote cellular movement.

Describe the structure and organization of the cell nucleus. Describe the structure and function of nuclear pores.

Outline the structures and general functions of the components of the endomembrane system.

Distinguish between the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Identify three important functions of the plasma membrane.

Tell why mitochondria and chloroplasts are called semi-autonomous organelles.

Discuss the evidence for the endosymbiosis theory.

Outline the structures and general functions of mitochondria and chloroplasts.

Explain how proteins are moved via vesicles through the endomembrane system.

If you are told about the function of a specific protein, tell where and in what type of cell that protein might be found.

Sketch and label a âtypicalâ animal cell and a real animal cell such as a red blood cell or a muscle cell. Tell how it might be different than the âtypicalâ cell in terms of its organelles and shape.

Sketch and label a âtypicalâ plant cell and a real plant cell such as a root or leaf cell. Tell how it might be different than the âtypicalâ cell in terms of its organelles and shape.

Describe the fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure. Tell why membranes are described as âfluid mosaicsâ.

Draw 10 phospholipid molecules as they would be arranged in a bilayer. Label the hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts.

61. Name all the places in a cell where membranes are found.

62. Describe at least three different categories of membrane proteins and tell what they do.

63. Describe what determines how fluid membranes are.

64. Explain how lipids are synthesized at the ER membrane.

65. Explain how transmembrane proteins are inserted into the ER membrane.

66. Compare and contrast diffusion, facilitated diffusion, passive transport, and active transport.

67. Explain the process of osmosis and how it affects cell structure.

68. Outline the functional differences between channels and transporters. Compare and contrast uniporters, symporters, and antiporters.

69. Explain the difference between primary active transport and secondary active transport.

70. Describe the structure and function of the sodium-potassium pump in animal cells and a similar pump in plants and prokaryotes.

71. Describe exocytosis and endocytosis and tell what molecules are moved across the membrane by these.

Discuss membrane transport, including its function and various forms and why all membranes have each form.

73. If a given cellular process is described, tell which form of transport might be involved.

List the different categories of animal tissue, providing general functions and specific examples of each.

Name the various organ systems found in many animals, list the components of each, and describe their general functions.

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BIOLOGY 151 Study Guide - Final Guide: Covalent Bond, Hydrogen Bond, Protein Folding

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