EAST 211 Lecture Notes - Lecture 10: Zhou Dynasty, Terracotta Army, Wage War

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*Change into philosophy
Which historical period are we talking about today?
Zhou Dynasty
-
Later part: Eastern Zhou
Spring and autumn period
Warring state
-
The Loss of Harmony
1st map: Western Zhou
Many small states
-
2nd map: late spring and autumn period
Small states but many decreased
-
3rd map: warring state
Number of states decreased again
-
What happened?
King of Zhou started to lose his power/control over small states. Small
states started to wage war on one another. Strong states coopted weak
states into themselves
End warring state period: only 7 states
Decreasing number of states will help you understand what is going on
that time: war, loss of king's control --> loss of harmony
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
What do you need for war?
Weapons and strategy
-
Weapons: lots of states prioritize the development of weapon technology
-
Eastern Zhou: at the end of the bronze age
Bronze is soft; weapons will need to be short
End of Eastern Zhou towards spring/autumn --> certain kind of alloy
appears (combination of bronze and iron); swords became harder and
longer
-
Strategy:
Terracotta warriors: stood in the same way an army should present itself
during war
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
Change of social hierarchy
-
Shang and Zhou dynasty: societies were very hierarchical
Zhou King
Lords
Descents of kings
§
Officials
Descents of lords, etc
§
Specialists
Peasants
Slaves
-
Stable social hierarchy would be broken by the wat
Specialist ideas were adopted by lords; they would jump to 'officials'
When a small state was defeated by a larger state, lords would drop down
to 'officials' in the new state
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
time of fallenness (Singerland, 2003)
The glorious past is gone. The superior tradition is lost. All we can do is to
"rouse the world from its fallen slumber and summon it back to the state
of the sacred"
War: chaos, migration, etc
No one revered the king; all lords wanted power
State of sacred: state of 3 golden dynasties
Harmony is lost: no one is complying with the mandate of heaven
(respecting king of Zhou)
-
Underlying logic: Past (the superior, the sacred) VS Present (the inferior, the
fallen)
Kind of opposite now… we look to future. For example, we invest in
technology ('the future')
In a lot of Asian countries, this is not the case
-
Discussion: Can we use this narrative to justify authority? If so, how?
'Asian values' and development?
How this narrative continually influences Chinese culture
Respect for Chinese dynasties
Nostalgia of 'better time'
Glory: salient feature of the past. But is it really so?
Conceptualized/imagined by later scholars
If a rebellion wants to overthrow King/Queen, they claim they know
mandate/tradition better. See how this narrative of "sacralizing the past"
can be used of lords of each state to retain control of the entire country
-
Importance of lineage: important if someone wants to proclaim to be the
authentic successor. Trace lineage all the way to the original teacher
-
Ancestor Worship: ancestors are important bc they belong to the past and the
past is sacred
-
Historical writing: technique of spring and autumn
Summarize the past to enlighten the present
Specific way of writing about the past
-
Intellectuals in Early Modern China challenge this narrative: think this narrative
will hinder the development of China. People who endorse this narrative will
not support change, evolution, development
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
How to restore the lost harmony?
Country is chaos; how do we restore the mandate?
-
Two aspects
"Sympathetic resonance"
Ruler needs to get in touch with inner sainthood? Once this
sympathetic resonance is realized, harmony will be achieved
§
Inner sage-hood and outer rulership
-
The hundred schools
Daoism
Legalism
Mohism
Confucianism
Yingyang school
Fortune tellers and astrologists. Use yin and yang to predict the
future
§
Zongheng school
Diplomats; came to the key and told him how to maintain
diplomatic relations with other states
§
School of Names
Logisticians
§
….
-
(hundred = many; not actually 100)
Pic: Zhang Yi (370-310 BCE, Zongheng School)
"Please let me know if my tongue is still there"
Went to a lord and lord had him punched. Tongue was important bc of
the importance of individual intelligence (more important than previous
social hierarchy)
-
Daoism
Question: how to restore harmony?
Answer: we no longer know how the cosmos function. In order to regain harmony, we
need to figure out how the cosmos function
Daoism
Founder 1: Laozi
-
Dao as the origin and principle of things in the cosmos
Ch 1: "The Dao that can be talked/followed is not the eternal Dao. The
name that can be named. Is not the eternal name. the nameless was the
beginning of the Heaven and the Earth. The named was the mother of all
creatures
How the cosmos function; this knowledge cannot be described by
everyday language
§
All of the names manifest to one aspect of the Dao but they are not
the whole Dao themselves
§
Ultimate knowledge of things that cannot be captured into words:
Dao
§
Ch 25: Humans imitate the earth. The earth imitates the heaven. The
heaven imitates the Dao. And the Dao imitates nature
Ch 40: reversal is the movement of the Dao. The weak is the use of the
Dao
Dao: demonstrates how cosmos function; demonstrates principle of the
mandate
-
Ideal personality
Ch 8: The highest good is water: water benefits the things of the world
and does not contend
If one person can embody the Dao, they have the highest
personality
§
Need this to return to harmony
§
-
Rulership
Ch 73: the Dao of Heaven, it does not content; it excels at responding,
though it does not speak; things come of themselves though it does not
summon
Ch 80: Small country, few people
state
§
-
Daoism
Founder 2: Zhuangzi
Challenge everyday knowledge
Recognize limits of knowledge and how ignorant we are; how much we
cannot understand the Dao
Laozi and Zhuangzi are kind of like Yin and Yang
-
Non-duality of opposites
Three in the morning: When the monkey trained was handing out acorns,
he said, "you get three in the morning, and four at night." this made all
the monkeys furious. "Well, then" he said, "you get four in the morning
and three at night" The monkeys were delighted. There was no change in
the reality behind the words, and yet the monkeys responded with joy
and anger
Even opposites are interdependent. We don’t know dark unless we know
light
-
Non-action
The useless tree: Zhuangzi, "Now you have this big tree and you're
distracted because it's useless. Why don't you plant it in Not-Even-
Anything Village, or the field of Broad and Boundless, relax and do
nothing by its side, or lie down for a free and east sleep under it? Axes will
never shorten its life, nothing can even harm it. If there is no use for it,
how can it come to grief or pain?
When someone grasps the Dao, they achieve this state of non-action
Doesn't mean to 'do nothing' - means to let nature take its course
and embrace how things are. Same for the ruler - ruler needs to
know how things operate so the ruler doesn't have to rule but
things come to their own course
§
-
Rule not to rule - influence on legalism
-
Difference between the 2 Founders:
Laozi provided us with a direct, affirmative (though obscure) articulation of the
Dao,
-
Zhuangzi did not give a direct depiction of the Dao but rather used parables and
fables to challenge the limit of our knowledge in order to make us understand
why we are ignorant of the Dao.
-
Non-duality of Opposites:
In everyday life, we treat opposites as totally separate. For example, the
opposite of 'Self' and 'Other.' But if we look deeper into this duality, are they
really that different? Whenever we look at someone (the Other), are they really
that separate from use? Are we the sole author of our life story? Example, a
lecture: authored by the prof and co-authored by the students. Our life stories
are co-authored by the self and the other
-
By negating duality, we look at the interdependence between the opposites
-
This is also the relationship between the yin and the yang
In the yin, there a bit of the yang and in the yang, there is a bit of yin
Rely on each other, it is the transition between the two that push the
cosmos forward (why we say the reverse is the movement of the Dao)
-
Modern influence of Daoism?
Kung Fu Panda: How Daoism still exerts influence in pop culture
-
Daoism as a religion: Daoist temples still exist in modern-day China
-
Integrating Daoism into psychoanalysis/therapy
-
Environmentalists draw on Daoism to talk about achieving sustainable
development (harmony between human and nature)
-
Legalism
Founder: Hanfei (280-233 BCE)
Lived in warring period
-
From Dao to craft and power
-
As to the so-called ‘possession of the state's mother’, the mother is Tao/Dao.
Tao/Dao appears in the craft whereby the state is possessed. As one has
possession of the craft whereby the state is possessed, he is said to have
possession of the state's mother.” (Ch20)
-
“True, reward and punishment are the state’s sharp tools. If held in the hands of
the ruler, they control the ministers. If held in the hands of the ministers, they
control the ruler. If the ruler shows the tool of reward, the ministers will
minimize it and thereby distribute private favors. If the ruler shows the tool of
punishment, the ministers will aggravate it and thereby overawe the people.
Since if the ruler of men shows the tool of reward, the ministers will abuse his
power, and if he shows the tool of punishment, they will utilize his authority,
hence the saying: ‘The state's sharp tools should not be shown to anybody’”.
(Ch21)
Ministers are lords of each small state of the country
Relationship between punishment and reward
Relationship between ruler and minister
Relationship between Yin and Yang?
Legalism: tool, craft politics
Do not care about ultimate; how to use Daoism to rule
§
Daoism: concerned with cosmos/ultimate reality
Use Yin and Yang to capture how cosmos function
§
-
Human nature
Human nature is ego
-
How can a state maintain harmony?
The law - "two handles" of punishment and reward
-
*treat hundred schools are separate philosophies, but there are overlaps between
their teachings. Maintain dialogue with one another
Mohism
Founder: Mozi
-
Mutual love and anti-war
Mutual love: love that is given equally to everyone. Equality between the
self and the other
-
“A sage, in taking the ordering of the world to be his business, must examine
what disorder arises from. In his attempts, what does he discover disorder to
arise from? It arises from lack of mutual love. Ministers and sons not being filial
towards rulers and fathers is what is spoken of as disorder. If a son loves himself
and does not love his father, then he disadvantages the father and benefits
himself. If a younger brother loves himself and does not love his older brother,
then he disadvantages the older brother and benefits himself. If a minister loves
himself and does not love his prince, then he disadvantages the prince and
benefits himself. This is what is spoken of as disorder. (Ch14)
-
“The killing of one person is spoken of as unrighteous and certainly constitutes
one capital offence. Reasoning on this basis, killing ten people is ten times as
unrighteous, so certainly constitutes ten capital offences. Killing a hundred
people is a hundred times as unrighteous, so certainly constitutes a hundred
capital offences. If this is valid, the gentlemen of the world should all know and
condemn it, and call it unrighteous. But when it comes to what is a great lack of
righteousness, that is, attacking states, then they do not know and condemn it.
On the contrary, they praise it and call it righteous (Ch17)
If we love each other, how can we wage war on one another?
Most followers of Mohism were from the lower-class (craftsmen,
peasants, etc)
Idea of mutual love - commonalities with modern ideas of
democracy/equality
-
Human nature is neither good nor evil
-
How can a state maintain harmony?
Follow the sages (the one who knows mutual love and who is anti-war)
Followers of Mohism started own community eventually
-
Mohism vs Legalism?
Followers of Mohism were anti-hierarchy and anti central government so they
started their own community
Mysterious - don't know if the community still exists. Lost all records
-
How to follow sages?
Have own community and find the one who knows and embodies mutual love
and anti-war. Don’t have information on procedures used to elect the sages
-
Confucianism
Kongzi (551-470 BCE) --> Confucius
Historical reason for this change: Jesuit missionaries came in the 16th
century and introduced Confucianism in Europe. They translated the
name
Today, his transliteration would be Kongzi using one system --> but there
are many different ways to translate Chinese characters
-
Political official, but wasn't successful as a politician. Left his state and travelled
for 13 years. Became an influential teacher with many disciples. At the age of
67, he returned to his home state and passed away at the age of 74
-
People revered him as a deity and built a temple for him
-
3 Images of Confucius: politician? educator and local deity
-
Confucianism
Main text: the analects
Confucius didn't actually write his teachings. Disciples collected his
teachings and compiled this monograph
-
Main themes:
(Ren): goodness, benevolence, humanity
(De): virtue
(Yi): rightness, righteousness, morality
君子 (Junzi): gentle person
(Dao): way
(Li): rites, ritual
無為 (Wuwei): non-action, effortless action
-
Some of these concepts appeared in other schools
Mohism: gentle person, righteousness
Daosim: non-action and the way
Thinkers in different schools were in dialogue with one another
-
Confucianism
Ren: goodness, benevolence, humanity
-
The master said, “to live in the neighborhood of the Good is fine. If one does not
choose to dwell among those who are Good, how will one obtain wisdom” (4.1)
-
The master said, “Without Goodness, one cannot remain constant in adversity
and cannot enjoy enduring happiness” “Those who are Good feel at home in
Goodness” (4.2)
The master said, “Is Goodness really so far away? If I simply desire Goodness, I
find that it is already here” (7.30)
Moral feeling?
-
Ren as:
Knowledge of other minds = empathy
Not just a moral feeling
-
The Chinese character (person) + (two) =
-
Confucianism 儒家
(Yi): rightness, righteousness, morality
-
The Master said, “The gentle person takes rightness as his substance, puts it
into practice by means of ritual, gives it expression through modesty and
perfects it by being trustworthy” (15.18)
-
The Master said, “With regard to the Tianxia, the gentle person has no
predispositions for or against any person. He merely associates with those he
considers right” (4.10)
-
The Master said, “The gentle person understands rightness, whereas the petty
person understands profit”(4.16)
-
--> Contrast between rightness (yi, ) and profit (li, ); Between gentle person
(junzi, 君子) and petty person (xiaoren, 小人)
Confucianism 儒家
(De): virtue
-
Ji Kangzi asked Confucius about governing, saying “If I were to execute those
who lacked the Way in order to advance those who possessed the Way, how
would that be?” Confucius responded, “In your governing, Sir, what need is
there for executions? If you desire goodness, then the common people will be
good. The Virtue of the gentle person is like the wind, and the Virtue of a petty
person is like the grass—when the wind moves over the grass, the grass is sure
to bend.” (12.19)
-
The Master said, “that I fail to cultivate Virtue, that I fail to inquire more deeply
into that which I have learned, that upon hearing what is right I remain unable
to move myself to do it, and that I prove unable to reform when I have done
something wrong – such potential failings are a source of constant worry to me”
(7.3)
-
The virtuous person does not need to use force
-
Confucianism 儒家
(Dao): way
-
The Master said, “Having in the morning heard that the Way was being put into
practice, I could die that evening without regret.” (4.8, trans. Hori, Zen Sand)
-
The music master Mian came to see Confucius. When They came to the steps,
the Master said, “here are the steps.” When they reached the seat, the Master
said, “here is your seat.” After everyone was seated, the Master informed him
as to who was present, saying, “so-and-so is seated here, and so-and-so is
seated over there.”
-
When the music master left, Zizhang asked, “is this the way to converse with a
music master?”
The Master replied, “yes, this is indeed the way to assist a music master”
(15.42).
Dao in Confucianism Vs. Dao in Daoism
Confucianism 儒家
(Li): rites, ritual
-
Yan Hui asked about Goodness.
-
The Master said, “Restraining yourself and returning to the rites constitutes
Goodness. If for one day you managed to restrain yourself and return to the
rites, in this way you could lead the entire world back to Goodness. The key to
achieving Goodness lies within yourself—how could it come from others?” Yan
Hui asked, “May I enquire as to the specifics?” The Master said, “Do not look
unless it is in accordance with ritual; do not listen unless it is in accordance with
ritual; do not move unless it is in accordance with ritual” (12.1)
What is the function of ritual?
-
Confucianism 儒家
ritual in the narrow and wide senses
-
Confucianism 儒家
無為 (wuwei): non-action, effortless action
-
-The Master said, “Is Shun not an example of someone who ruled by means of
wu-wei? What did he do? He made himself reverent and took his proper [ritual]
position facing south, that is all.” (15.5)
-The Master said, “One who rules through the power of Virtue is analogous to
the Pole Star: it simply remains in its place and receives the homage of the
myriad lesser stars.” (2.1)
-Non-action = doing nothing? Effortless action, why effortless?
-The mental state of at-ease/ at-home
-To cultivate until the way becomes natural and effortless – let the original virtue
reveal
Confucianism 儒家
-Confucianism after Confucius
-Mengzi (孟子, i.e. Mencius372-289 BCE)and Xunzi (Xunzi, 荀子, 313-238 BCE)
Debate over human nature
-Mengzi: The nature of humans is good (人之性善), but becomes corrupt later
-Xunzi: The nature of humans is evil (人之性悪), and is already corrupt
-Merge between Confucianism and Legalism
“inner Confucianism, outer Legalism”
utilization of ritual and law” 禮法並用
-Neo-Confucianism: double-nature theory (fuxing復性)
-School of Principles (lixue, 理學)
-School of Mind-Nature (xinxue, 心學)
5: The Hundred Schools
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*Change into philosophy
Which historical period are we talking about today?
Zhou Dynasty
-
Later part: Eastern Zhou
Spring and autumn period
Warring state
-
The Loss of Harmony
1st map: Western Zhou
Many small states
-
2nd map: late spring and autumn period
Small states but many decreased
-
3rd map: warring state
Number of states decreased again
-
What happened?
King of Zhou started to lose his power/control over small states. Small
states started to wage war on one another. Strong states coopted weak
states into themselves
End warring state period: only 7 states
Decreasing number of states will help you understand what is going on
that time: war, loss of king's control --> loss of harmony
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
What do you need for war?
Weapons and strategy
-
Weapons: lots of states prioritize the development of weapon technology
-
Eastern Zhou: at the end of the bronze age
Bronze is soft; weapons will need to be short
End of Eastern Zhou towards spring/autumn --> certain kind of alloy
appears (combination of bronze and iron); swords became harder and
longer
-
Strategy:
Terracotta warriors: stood in the same way an army should present itself
during war
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
Change of social hierarchy
-
Shang and Zhou dynasty: societies were very hierarchical
Zhou King
Lords
Descents of kings
Officials
Descents of lords, etc
Specialists
Peasants
Slaves
-
Stable social hierarchy would be broken by the wat
Specialist ideas were adopted by lords; they would jump to 'officials'
When a small state was defeated by a larger state, lords would drop down
to 'officials' in the new state
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
time of fallenness (Singerland, 2003)
The glorious past is gone. The superior tradition is lost. All we can do is to
"rouse the world from its fallen slumber and summon it back to the state
of the sacred"
War: chaos, migration, etc
No one revered the king; all lords wanted power
State of sacred: state of 3 golden dynasties
Harmony is lost: no one is complying with the mandate of heaven
(respecting king of Zhou)
-
Underlying logic: Past (the superior, the sacred) VS Present (the inferior, the
fallen)
Kind of opposite now… we look to future. For example, we invest in
technology ('the future')
In a lot of Asian countries, this is not the case
-
Discussion: Can we use this narrative to justify authority? If so, how?
'Asian values' and development?
How this narrative continually influences Chinese culture
Respect for Chinese dynasties
Nostalgia of 'better time'
Glory: salient feature of the past. But is it really so?
Conceptualized/imagined by later scholars
If a rebellion wants to overthrow King/Queen, they claim they know
mandate/tradition better. See how this narrative of "sacralizing the past"
can be used of lords of each state to retain control of the entire country
-
Importance of lineage: important if someone wants to proclaim to be the
authentic successor. Trace lineage all the way to the original teacher
-
Ancestor Worship: ancestors are important bc they belong to the past and the
past is sacred
-
Historical writing: technique of spring and autumn
Summarize the past to enlighten the present
Specific way of writing about the past
-
Intellectuals in Early Modern China challenge this narrative: think this narrative
will hinder the development of China. People who endorse this narrative will
not support change, evolution, development
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
How to restore the lost harmony?
Country is chaos; how do we restore the mandate?
-
Two aspects
"Sympathetic resonance"
Ruler needs to get in touch with inner sainthood? Once this
sympathetic resonance is realized, harmony will be achieved
§
Inner sage-hood and outer rulership
-
The hundred schools
Daoism
Legalism
Mohism
Confucianism
Yingyang school
Fortune tellers and astrologists. Use yin and yang to predict the
future
§
Zongheng school
Diplomats; came to the key and told him how to maintain
diplomatic relations with other states
§
School of Names
Logisticians
§
….
-
(hundred = many; not actually 100)
Pic: Zhang Yi (370-310 BCE, Zongheng School)
"Please let me know if my tongue is still there"
Went to a lord and lord had him punched. Tongue was important bc of
the importance of individual intelligence (more important than previous
social hierarchy)
-
Daoism
Question: how to restore harmony?
Answer: we no longer know how the cosmos function. In order to regain harmony, we
need to figure out how the cosmos function
Daoism
Founder 1: Laozi
-
Dao as the origin and principle of things in the cosmos
Ch 1: "The Dao that can be talked/followed is not the eternal Dao. The
name that can be named. Is not the eternal name. the nameless was the
beginning of the Heaven and the Earth. The named was the mother of all
creatures
How the cosmos function; this knowledge cannot be described by
everyday language
§
All of the names manifest to one aspect of the Dao but they are not
the whole Dao themselves
§
Ultimate knowledge of things that cannot be captured into words:
Dao
§
Ch 25: Humans imitate the earth. The earth imitates the heaven. The
heaven imitates the Dao. And the Dao imitates nature
Ch 40: reversal is the movement of the Dao. The weak is the use of the
Dao
Dao: demonstrates how cosmos function; demonstrates principle of the
mandate
-
Ideal personality
Ch 8: The highest good is water: water benefits the things of the world
and does not contend
If one person can embody the Dao, they have the highest
personality
§
Need this to return to harmony
§
-
Rulership
Ch 73: the Dao of Heaven, it does not content; it excels at responding,
though it does not speak; things come of themselves though it does not
summon
Ch 80: Small country, few people
state
§
-
Daoism
Founder 2: Zhuangzi
Challenge everyday knowledge
Recognize limits of knowledge and how ignorant we are; how much we
cannot understand the Dao
Laozi and Zhuangzi are kind of like Yin and Yang
-
Non-duality of opposites
Three in the morning: When the monkey trained was handing out acorns,
he said, "you get three in the morning, and four at night." this made all
the monkeys furious. "Well, then" he said, "you get four in the morning
and three at night" The monkeys were delighted. There was no change in
the reality behind the words, and yet the monkeys responded with joy
and anger
Even opposites are interdependent. We don’t know dark unless we know
light
-
Non-action
The useless tree: Zhuangzi, "Now you have this big tree and you're
distracted because it's useless. Why don't you plant it in Not-Even-
Anything Village, or the field of Broad and Boundless, relax and do
nothing by its side, or lie down for a free and east sleep under it? Axes will
never shorten its life, nothing can even harm it. If there is no use for it,
how can it come to grief or pain?
When someone grasps the Dao, they achieve this state of non-action
Doesn't mean to 'do nothing' - means to let nature take its course
and embrace how things are. Same for the ruler - ruler needs to
know how things operate so the ruler doesn't have to rule but
things come to their own course
§
-
Rule not to rule - influence on legalism
-
Difference between the 2 Founders:
Laozi provided us with a direct, affirmative (though obscure) articulation of the
Dao,
-
Zhuangzi did not give a direct depiction of the Dao but rather used parables and
fables to challenge the limit of our knowledge in order to make us understand
why we are ignorant of the Dao.
-
Non-duality of Opposites:
In everyday life, we treat opposites as totally separate. For example, the
opposite of 'Self' and 'Other.' But if we look deeper into this duality, are they
really that different? Whenever we look at someone (the Other), are they really
that separate from use? Are we the sole author of our life story? Example, a
lecture: authored by the prof and co-authored by the students. Our life stories
are co-authored by the self and the other
-
By negating duality, we look at the interdependence between the opposites
-
This is also the relationship between the yin and the yang
In the yin, there a bit of the yang and in the yang, there is a bit of yin
Rely on each other, it is the transition between the two that push the
cosmos forward (why we say the reverse is the movement of the Dao)
-
Modern influence of Daoism?
Kung Fu Panda: How Daoism still exerts influence in pop culture
-
Daoism as a religion: Daoist temples still exist in modern-day China
-
Integrating Daoism into psychoanalysis/therapy
-
Environmentalists draw on Daoism to talk about achieving sustainable
development (harmony between human and nature)
-
Legalism
Founder: Hanfei (280-233 BCE)
Lived in warring period
-
From Dao to craft and power
-
As to the so-called ‘possession of the state's mother’, the mother is Tao/Dao.
Tao/Dao appears in the craft whereby the state is possessed. As one has
possession of the craft whereby the state is possessed, he is said to have
possession of the state's mother.” (Ch20)
-
“True, reward and punishment are the state’s sharp tools. If held in the hands of
the ruler, they control the ministers. If held in the hands of the ministers, they
control the ruler. If the ruler shows the tool of reward, the ministers will
minimize it and thereby distribute private favors. If the ruler shows the tool of
punishment, the ministers will aggravate it and thereby overawe the people.
Since if the ruler of men shows the tool of reward, the ministers will abuse his
power, and if he shows the tool of punishment, they will utilize his authority,
hence the saying: ‘The state's sharp tools should not be shown to anybody’”.
(Ch21)
Ministers are lords of each small state of the country
Relationship between punishment and reward
Relationship between ruler and minister
Relationship between Yin and Yang?
Legalism: tool, craft politics
Do not care about ultimate; how to use Daoism to rule
§
Daoism: concerned with cosmos/ultimate reality
Use Yin and Yang to capture how cosmos function
§
-
Human nature
Human nature is ego
-
How can a state maintain harmony?
The law - "two handles" of punishment and reward
-
*treat hundred schools are separate philosophies, but there are overlaps between
their teachings. Maintain dialogue with one another
Mohism
Founder: Mozi
-
Mutual love and anti-war
Mutual love: love that is given equally to everyone. Equality between the
self and the other
-
“A sage, in taking the ordering of the world to be his business, must examine
what disorder arises from. In his attempts, what does he discover disorder to
arise from? It arises from lack of mutual love. Ministers and sons not being filial
towards rulers and fathers is what is spoken of as disorder. If a son loves himself
and does not love his father, then he disadvantages the father and benefits
himself. If a younger brother loves himself and does not love his older brother,
then he disadvantages the older brother and benefits himself. If a minister loves
himself and does not love his prince, then he disadvantages the prince and
benefits himself. This is what is spoken of as disorder. (Ch14)
-
“The killing of one person is spoken of as unrighteous and certainly constitutes
one capital offence. Reasoning on this basis, killing ten people is ten times as
unrighteous, so certainly constitutes ten capital offences. Killing a hundred
people is a hundred times as unrighteous, so certainly constitutes a hundred
capital offences. If this is valid, the gentlemen of the world should all know and
condemn it, and call it unrighteous. But when it comes to what is a great lack of
righteousness, that is, attacking states, then they do not know and condemn it.
On the contrary, they praise it and call it righteous (Ch17)
If we love each other, how can we wage war on one another?
Most followers of Mohism were from the lower-class (craftsmen,
peasants, etc)
Idea of mutual love - commonalities with modern ideas of
democracy/equality
-
Human nature is neither good nor evil
-
How can a state maintain harmony?
Follow the sages (the one who knows mutual love and who is anti-war)
Followers of Mohism started own community eventually
-
Mohism vs Legalism?
Followers of Mohism were anti-hierarchy and anti central government so they
started their own community
Mysterious - don't know if the community still exists. Lost all records
-
How to follow sages?
Have own community and find the one who knows and embodies mutual love
and anti-war. Don’t have information on procedures used to elect the sages
-
Confucianism
Kongzi (551-470 BCE) --> Confucius
Historical reason for this change: Jesuit missionaries came in the 16th
century and introduced Confucianism in Europe. They translated the
name
Today, his transliteration would be Kongzi using one system --> but there
are many different ways to translate Chinese characters
-
Political official, but wasn't successful as a politician. Left his state and travelled
for 13 years. Became an influential teacher with many disciples. At the age of
67, he returned to his home state and passed away at the age of 74
-
People revered him as a deity and built a temple for him
-
3 Images of Confucius: politician? educator and local deity
-
Confucianism
Main text: the analects
Confucius didn't actually write his teachings. Disciples collected his
teachings and compiled this monograph
-
Main themes:
(Ren): goodness, benevolence, humanity
(De): virtue
(Yi): rightness, righteousness, morality
君子 (Junzi): gentle person
(Dao): way
(Li): rites, ritual
無為 (Wuwei): non-action, effortless action
-
Some of these concepts appeared in other schools
Mohism: gentle person, righteousness
Daosim: non-action and the way
Thinkers in different schools were in dialogue with one another
-
Confucianism
Ren: goodness, benevolence, humanity
-
The master said, “to live in the neighborhood of the Good is fine. If one does not
choose to dwell among those who are Good, how will one obtain wisdom” (4.1)
-
The master said, “Without Goodness, one cannot remain constant in adversity
and cannot enjoy enduring happiness” “Those who are Good feel at home in
Goodness” (4.2)
The master said, “Is Goodness really so far away? If I simply desire Goodness, I
find that it is already here” (7.30)
Moral feeling?
-
Ren as:
Knowledge of other minds = empathy
Not just a moral feeling
-
The Chinese character (person) + (two) =
-
Confucianism 儒家
(Yi): rightness, righteousness, morality
-
The Master said, “The gentle person takes rightness as his substance, puts it
into practice by means of ritual, gives it expression through modesty and
perfects it by being trustworthy” (15.18)
-
The Master said, “With regard to the Tianxia, the gentle person has no
predispositions for or against any person. He merely associates with those he
considers right” (4.10)
-
The Master said, “The gentle person understands rightness, whereas the petty
person understands profit”(4.16)
-
--> Contrast between rightness (yi, ) and profit (li, ); Between gentle person
(junzi, 君子) and petty person (xiaoren, 小人)
Confucianism 儒家
(De): virtue
-
Ji Kangzi asked Confucius about governing, saying “If I were to execute those
who lacked the Way in order to advance those who possessed the Way, how
would that be?” Confucius responded, “In your governing, Sir, what need is
there for executions? If you desire goodness, then the common people will be
good. The Virtue of the gentle person is like the wind, and the Virtue of a petty
person is like the grass—when the wind moves over the grass, the grass is sure
to bend.” (12.19)
-
The Master said, “that I fail to cultivate Virtue, that I fail to inquire more deeply
into that which I have learned, that upon hearing what is right I remain unable
to move myself to do it, and that I prove unable to reform when I have done
something wrong – such potential failings are a source of constant worry to me”
(7.3)
-
The virtuous person does not need to use force
-
Confucianism 儒家
(Dao): way
-
The Master said, “Having in the morning heard that the Way was being put into
practice, I could die that evening without regret.” (4.8, trans. Hori, Zen Sand)
-
The music master Mian came to see Confucius. When They came to the steps,
the Master said, “here are the steps.” When they reached the seat, the Master
said, “here is your seat.” After everyone was seated, the Master informed him
as to who was present, saying, “so-and-so is seated here, and so-and-so is
seated over there.”
-
When the music master left, Zizhang asked, “is this the way to converse with a
music master?”
The Master replied, “yes, this is indeed the way to assist a music master”
(15.42).
Dao in Confucianism Vs. Dao in Daoism
Confucianism 儒家
(Li): rites, ritual
-
Yan Hui asked about Goodness.
-
The Master said, “Restraining yourself and returning to the rites constitutes
Goodness. If for one day you managed to restrain yourself and return to the
rites, in this way you could lead the entire world back to Goodness. The key to
achieving Goodness lies within yourself—how could it come from others?” Yan
Hui asked, “May I enquire as to the specifics?” The Master said, “Do not look
unless it is in accordance with ritual; do not listen unless it is in accordance with
ritual; do not move unless it is in accordance with ritual” (12.1)
What is the function of ritual?
-
Confucianism 儒家
ritual in the narrow and wide senses
-
Confucianism 儒家
無為 (wuwei): non-action, effortless action
-
-The Master said, “Is Shun not an example of someone who ruled by means of
wu-wei? What did he do? He made himself reverent and took his proper [ritual]
position facing south, that is all.” (15.5)
-The Master said, “One who rules through the power of Virtue is analogous to
the Pole Star: it simply remains in its place and receives the homage of the
myriad lesser stars.” (2.1)
-Non-action = doing nothing? Effortless action, why effortless?
-The mental state of at-ease/ at-home
-To cultivate until the way becomes natural and effortless – let the original virtue
reveal
Confucianism 儒家
-Confucianism after Confucius
-Mengzi (孟子, i.e. Mencius372-289 BCE)and Xunzi (Xunzi, 荀子, 313-238 BCE)
Debate over human nature
-Mengzi: The nature of humans is good (人之性善), but becomes corrupt later
-Xunzi: The nature of humans is evil (人之性悪), and is already corrupt
-Merge between Confucianism and Legalism
“inner Confucianism, outer Legalism”
utilization of ritual and law” 禮法並用
-Neo-Confucianism: double-nature theory (fuxing復性)
-School of Principles (lixue, 理學)
-School of Mind-Nature (xinxue, 心學)
5: The Hundred Schools
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*Change into philosophy
Which historical period are we talking about today?
Zhou Dynasty
-
Later part: Eastern Zhou
Spring and autumn period
Warring state
-
The Loss of Harmony
1st map: Western Zhou
Many small states
-
2nd map: late spring and autumn period
Small states but many decreased
-
3rd map: warring state
Number of states decreased again
-
What happened?
King of Zhou started to lose his power/control over small states. Small
states started to wage war on one another. Strong states coopted weak
states into themselves
End warring state period: only 7 states
Decreasing number of states will help you understand what is going on
that time: war, loss of king's control --> loss of harmony
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
What do you need for war?
Weapons and strategy
-
Weapons: lots of states prioritize the development of weapon technology
-
Eastern Zhou: at the end of the bronze age
Bronze is soft; weapons will need to be short
End of Eastern Zhou towards spring/autumn --> certain kind of alloy
appears (combination of bronze and iron); swords became harder and
longer
-
Strategy:
Terracotta warriors: stood in the same way an army should present itself
during war
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
Change of social hierarchy
-
Shang and Zhou dynasty: societies were very hierarchical
Zhou King
Lords
Descents of kings
§
Officials
Descents of lords, etc
§
Specialists
Peasants
Slaves
-
Stable social hierarchy would be broken by the wat
Specialist ideas were adopted by lords; they would jump to 'officials'
When a small state was defeated by a larger state, lords would drop down
to 'officials' in the new state
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
time of fallenness (Singerland, 2003)
The glorious past is gone. The superior tradition is lost. All we can do is to
"rouse the world from its fallen slumber and summon it back to the state
of the sacred"
War: chaos, migration, etc
No one revered the king; all lords wanted power
State of sacred: state of 3 golden dynasties
Harmony is lost: no one is complying with the mandate of heaven
(respecting king of Zhou)
-
Underlying logic: Past (the superior, the sacred) VS Present (the inferior, the
fallen)
Kind of opposite now… we look to future. For example, we invest in
technology ('the future')
In a lot of Asian countries, this is not the case
-
Discussion: Can we use this narrative to justify authority? If so, how?
'Asian values' and development?
How this narrative continually influences Chinese culture
Respect for Chinese dynasties
Nostalgia of 'better time'
Glory: salient feature of the past. But is it really so?
Conceptualized/imagined by later scholars
If a rebellion wants to overthrow King/Queen, they claim they know
mandate/tradition better. See how this narrative of "sacralizing the past"
can be used of lords of each state to retain control of the entire country
-
Importance of lineage: important if someone wants to proclaim to be the
authentic successor. Trace lineage all the way to the original teacher
-
Ancestor Worship: ancestors are important bc they belong to the past and the
past is sacred
-
Historical writing: technique of spring and autumn
Summarize the past to enlighten the present
Specific way of writing about the past
-
Intellectuals in Early Modern China challenge this narrative: think this narrative
will hinder the development of China. People who endorse this narrative will
not support change, evolution, development
-
"The Loss of Harmony…"
How to restore the lost harmony?
Country is chaos; how do we restore the mandate?
-
Two aspects
"Sympathetic resonance"
Ruler needs to get in touch with inner sainthood? Once this
sympathetic resonance is realized, harmony will be achieved
Inner sage-hood and outer rulership
-
The hundred schools
Daoism
Legalism
Mohism
Confucianism
Yingyang school
Fortune tellers and astrologists. Use yin and yang to predict the
future
Zongheng school
Diplomats; came to the key and told him how to maintain
diplomatic relations with other states
School of Names
Logisticians
§
….
-
(hundred = many; not actually 100)
Pic: Zhang Yi (370-310 BCE, Zongheng School)
"Please let me know if my tongue is still there"
Went to a lord and lord had him punched. Tongue was important bc of
the importance of individual intelligence (more important than previous
social hierarchy)
-
Daoism
Question: how to restore harmony?
Answer: we no longer know how the cosmos function. In order to regain harmony, we
need to figure out how the cosmos function
Daoism
Founder 1: Laozi
-
Dao as the origin and principle of things in the cosmos
Ch 1: "The Dao that can be talked/followed is not the eternal Dao. The
name that can be named. Is not the eternal name. the nameless was the
beginning of the Heaven and the Earth. The named was the mother of all
creatures
How the cosmos function; this knowledge cannot be described by
everyday language
§
All of the names manifest to one aspect of the Dao but they are not
the whole Dao themselves
§
Ultimate knowledge of things that cannot be captured into words:
Dao
§
Ch 25: Humans imitate the earth. The earth imitates the heaven. The
heaven imitates the Dao. And the Dao imitates nature
Ch 40: reversal is the movement of the Dao. The weak is the use of the
Dao
Dao: demonstrates how cosmos function; demonstrates principle of the
mandate
-
Ideal personality
Ch 8: The highest good is water: water benefits the things of the world
and does not contend
If one person can embody the Dao, they have the highest
personality
§
Need this to return to harmony
§
-
Rulership
Ch 73: the Dao of Heaven, it does not content; it excels at responding,
though it does not speak; things come of themselves though it does not
summon
Ch 80: Small country, few people
state
§
-
Daoism
Founder 2: Zhuangzi
Challenge everyday knowledge
Recognize limits of knowledge and how ignorant we are; how much we
cannot understand the Dao
Laozi and Zhuangzi are kind of like Yin and Yang
-
Non-duality of opposites
Three in the morning: When the monkey trained was handing out acorns,
he said, "you get three in the morning, and four at night." this made all
the monkeys furious. "Well, then" he said, "you get four in the morning
and three at night" The monkeys were delighted. There was no change in
the reality behind the words, and yet the monkeys responded with joy
and anger
Even opposites are interdependent. We don’t know dark unless we know
light
-
Non-action
The useless tree: Zhuangzi, "Now you have this big tree and you're
distracted because it's useless. Why don't you plant it in Not-Even-
Anything Village, or the field of Broad and Boundless, relax and do
nothing by its side, or lie down for a free and east sleep under it? Axes will
never shorten its life, nothing can even harm it. If there is no use for it,
how can it come to grief or pain?
When someone grasps the Dao, they achieve this state of non-action
Doesn't mean to 'do nothing' - means to let nature take its course
and embrace how things are. Same for the ruler - ruler needs to
know how things operate so the ruler doesn't have to rule but
things come to their own course
§
-
Rule not to rule - influence on legalism
-
Difference between the 2 Founders:
Laozi provided us with a direct, affirmative (though obscure) articulation of the
Dao,
-
Zhuangzi did not give a direct depiction of the Dao but rather used parables and
fables to challenge the limit of our knowledge in order to make us understand
why we are ignorant of the Dao.
-
Non-duality of Opposites:
In everyday life, we treat opposites as totally separate. For example, the
opposite of 'Self' and 'Other.' But if we look deeper into this duality, are they
really that different? Whenever we look at someone (the Other), are they really
that separate from use? Are we the sole author of our life story? Example, a
lecture: authored by the prof and co-authored by the students. Our life stories
are co-authored by the self and the other
-
By negating duality, we look at the interdependence between the opposites
-
This is also the relationship between the yin and the yang
In the yin, there a bit of the yang and in the yang, there is a bit of yin
Rely on each other, it is the transition between the two that push the
cosmos forward (why we say the reverse is the movement of the Dao)
-
Modern influence of Daoism?
Kung Fu Panda: How Daoism still exerts influence in pop culture
-
Daoism as a religion: Daoist temples still exist in modern-day China
-
Integrating Daoism into psychoanalysis/therapy
-
Environmentalists draw on Daoism to talk about achieving sustainable
development (harmony between human and nature)
-
Legalism
Founder: Hanfei (280-233 BCE)
Lived in warring period
-
From Dao to craft and power
-
As to the so-called ‘possession of the state's mother’, the mother is Tao/Dao.
Tao/Dao appears in the craft whereby the state is possessed. As one has
possession of the craft whereby the state is possessed, he is said to have
possession of the state's mother.” (Ch20)
-
“True, reward and punishment are the state’s sharp tools. If held in the hands of
the ruler, they control the ministers. If held in the hands of the ministers, they
control the ruler. If the ruler shows the tool of reward, the ministers will
minimize it and thereby distribute private favors. If the ruler shows the tool of
punishment, the ministers will aggravate it and thereby overawe the people.
Since if the ruler of men shows the tool of reward, the ministers will abuse his
power, and if he shows the tool of punishment, they will utilize his authority,
hence the saying: ‘The state's sharp tools should not be shown to anybody’”.
(Ch21)
Ministers are lords of each small state of the country
Relationship between punishment and reward
Relationship between ruler and minister
Relationship between Yin and Yang?
Legalism: tool, craft politics
Do not care about ultimate; how to use Daoism to rule
§
Daoism: concerned with cosmos/ultimate reality
Use Yin and Yang to capture how cosmos function
§
-
Human nature
Human nature is ego
-
How can a state maintain harmony?
The law - "two handles" of punishment and reward
-
*treat hundred schools are separate philosophies, but there are overlaps between
their teachings. Maintain dialogue with one another
Mohism
Founder: Mozi
-
Mutual love and anti-war
Mutual love: love that is given equally to everyone. Equality between the
self and the other
-
“A sage, in taking the ordering of the world to be his business, must examine
what disorder arises from. In his attempts, what does he discover disorder to
arise from? It arises from lack of mutual love. Ministers and sons not being filial
towards rulers and fathers is what is spoken of as disorder. If a son loves himself
and does not love his father, then he disadvantages the father and benefits
himself. If a younger brother loves himself and does not love his older brother,
then he disadvantages the older brother and benefits himself. If a minister loves
himself and does not love his prince, then he disadvantages the prince and
benefits himself. This is what is spoken of as disorder. (Ch14)
-
“The killing of one person is spoken of as unrighteous and certainly constitutes
one capital offence. Reasoning on this basis, killing ten people is ten times as
unrighteous, so certainly constitutes ten capital offences. Killing a hundred
people is a hundred times as unrighteous, so certainly constitutes a hundred
capital offences. If this is valid, the gentlemen of the world should all know and
condemn it, and call it unrighteous. But when it comes to what is a great lack of
righteousness, that is, attacking states, then they do not know and condemn it.
On the contrary, they praise it and call it righteous (Ch17)
If we love each other, how can we wage war on one another?
Most followers of Mohism were from the lower-class (craftsmen,
peasants, etc)
Idea of mutual love - commonalities with modern ideas of
democracy/equality
-
Human nature is neither good nor evil
-
How can a state maintain harmony?
Follow the sages (the one who knows mutual love and who is anti-war)
Followers of Mohism started own community eventually
-
Mohism vs Legalism?
Followers of Mohism were anti-hierarchy and anti central government so they
started their own community
Mysterious - don't know if the community still exists. Lost all records
-
How to follow sages?
Have own community and find the one who knows and embodies mutual love
and anti-war. Don’t have information on procedures used to elect the sages
-
Confucianism
Kongzi (551-470 BCE) --> Confucius
Historical reason for this change: Jesuit missionaries came in the 16th
century and introduced Confucianism in Europe. They translated the
name
Today, his transliteration would be Kongzi using one system --> but there
are many different ways to translate Chinese characters
-
Political official, but wasn't successful as a politician. Left his state and travelled
for 13 years. Became an influential teacher with many disciples. At the age of
67, he returned to his home state and passed away at the age of 74
-
People revered him as a deity and built a temple for him
-
3 Images of Confucius: politician? educator and local deity
-
Confucianism
Main text: the analects
Confucius didn't actually write his teachings. Disciples collected his
teachings and compiled this monograph
-
Main themes:
(Ren): goodness, benevolence, humanity
(De): virtue
(Yi): rightness, righteousness, morality
君子 (Junzi): gentle person
(Dao): way
(Li): rites, ritual
無為 (Wuwei): non-action, effortless action
-
Some of these concepts appeared in other schools
Mohism: gentle person, righteousness
Daosim: non-action and the way
Thinkers in different schools were in dialogue with one another
-
Confucianism
Ren: goodness, benevolence, humanity
-
The master said, “to live in the neighborhood of the Good is fine. If one does not
choose to dwell among those who are Good, how will one obtain wisdom” (4.1)
-
The master said, “Without Goodness, one cannot remain constant in adversity
and cannot enjoy enduring happiness” “Those who are Good feel at home in
Goodness” (4.2)
The master said, “Is Goodness really so far away? If I simply desire Goodness, I
find that it is already here” (7.30)
Moral feeling?
-
Ren as:
Knowledge of other minds = empathy
Not just a moral feeling
-
The Chinese character (person) + (two) =
-
Confucianism 儒家
(Yi): rightness, righteousness, morality
-
The Master said, “The gentle person takes rightness as his substance, puts it
into practice by means of ritual, gives it expression through modesty and
perfects it by being trustworthy” (15.18)
-
The Master said, “With regard to the Tianxia, the gentle person has no
predispositions for or against any person. He merely associates with those he
considers right” (4.10)
-
The Master said, “The gentle person understands rightness, whereas the petty
person understands profit”(4.16)
-
--> Contrast between rightness (yi, ) and profit (li, ); Between gentle person
(junzi, 君子) and petty person (xiaoren, 小人)
Confucianism 儒家
(De): virtue
-
Ji Kangzi asked Confucius about governing, saying “If I were to execute those
who lacked the Way in order to advance those who possessed the Way, how
would that be?” Confucius responded, “In your governing, Sir, what need is
there for executions? If you desire goodness, then the common people will be
good. The Virtue of the gentle person is like the wind, and the Virtue of a petty
person is like the grass—when the wind moves over the grass, the grass is sure
to bend.” (12.19)
-
The Master said, “that I fail to cultivate Virtue, that I fail to inquire more deeply
into that which I have learned, that upon hearing what is right I remain unable
to move myself to do it, and that I prove unable to reform when I have done
something wrong – such potential failings are a source of constant worry to me”
(7.3)
-
The virtuous person does not need to use force
-
Confucianism 儒家
(Dao): way
-
The Master said, “Having in the morning heard that the Way was being put into
practice, I could die that evening without regret.” (4.8, trans. Hori, Zen Sand)
-
The music master Mian came to see Confucius. When They came to the steps,
the Master said, “here are the steps.” When they reached the seat, the Master
said, “here is your seat.” After everyone was seated, the Master informed him
as to who was present, saying, “so-and-so is seated here, and so-and-so is
seated over there.”
-
When the music master left, Zizhang asked, “is this the way to converse with a
music master?”
The Master replied, “yes, this is indeed the way to assist a music master”
(15.42).
Dao in Confucianism Vs. Dao in Daoism
Confucianism 儒家
(Li): rites, ritual
-
Yan Hui asked about Goodness.
-
The Master said, “Restraining yourself and returning to the rites constitutes
Goodness. If for one day you managed to restrain yourself and return to the
rites, in this way you could lead the entire world back to Goodness. The key to
achieving Goodness lies within yourself—how could it come from others?” Yan
Hui asked, “May I enquire as to the specifics?” The Master said, “Do not look
unless it is in accordance with ritual; do not listen unless it is in accordance with
ritual; do not move unless it is in accordance with ritual” (12.1)
What is the function of ritual?
-
Confucianism 儒家
ritual in the narrow and wide senses
-
Confucianism 儒家
無為 (wuwei): non-action, effortless action
-
-The Master said, “Is Shun not an example of someone who ruled by means of
wu-wei? What did he do? He made himself reverent and took his proper [ritual]
position facing south, that is all.” (15.5)
-The Master said, “One who rules through the power of Virtue is analogous to
the Pole Star: it simply remains in its place and receives the homage of the
myriad lesser stars.” (2.1)
-Non-action = doing nothing? Effortless action, why effortless?
-The mental state of at-ease/ at-home
-To cultivate until the way becomes natural and effortless – let the original virtue
reveal
Confucianism 儒家
-Confucianism after Confucius
-Mengzi (孟子, i.e. Mencius372-289 BCE)and Xunzi (Xunzi, 荀子, 313-238 BCE)
Debate over human nature
-Mengzi: The nature of humans is good (人之性善), but becomes corrupt later
-Xunzi: The nature of humans is evil (人之性悪), and is already corrupt
-Merge between Confucianism and Legalism
“inner Confucianism, outer Legalism”
utilization of ritual and law” 禮法並用
-Neo-Confucianism: double-nature theory (fuxing復性)
-School of Principles (lixue, 理學)
-School of Mind-Nature (xinxue, 心學)
5: The Hundred Schools
Monday, January 22, 2018 8:35 AM
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Document Summary

King of zhou started to lose his power/control over small states. Small states started to wage war on one another. Decreasing number of states will help you understand what is going on that time: war, loss of king"s control --> loss of harmony. Weapons: lots of states prioritize the development of weapon technology. Eastern zhou: at the end of the bronze age. Bronze is soft; weapons will need to be short. End of eastern zhou towards spring/autumn --> certain kind of alloy appears (combination of bronze and iron); swords became harder and longer. Terracotta warriors: stood in the same way an army should present itself during war. Shang and zhou dynasty: societies were very hierarchical. Stable social hierarchy would be broken by the wat. Specialist ideas were adopted by lords; they would jump to "officials" When a small state was defeated by a larger state, lords would drop down to "officials" in the new state.

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