BSC 422 Lecture Notes - Lecture 19: Linker Dna, Apoptosis, Cytochrome C

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silvercicada472

22 May 2018

School

University of Alabama

Department

Biological Sciences

Course

BSC 422

Professor

Katrina Ramonell

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Apoptosis

For every cell, there is a fixed span of life, i.e., time to live and time to die. This

cell death is a very orderly process and so it is called Programmed Cell Death or

PCD or Apoptosis. Apoptosis is a mechanism of programmed cell death or cell

suicide which is essential for the survival of the organism, for the normal de-

velopment of the organism as the programmed destruction of the organism as the

programmed destruction of cells is found during embryo-genesis. It also protects

the organism by removing damaged cells which may be due to viral infection or

due to exposure to radiations. It also inhibits the tumor development and so any

defect in the control of apoptosis may lead to cancer.

There are two methods by which cells may die such as:

1. Death by injury that is through mechanical damage or due to toxic chemicals.

2. By Apoptosis, i.e., through programmed cell death.

The following distinct morphological changes are found during

apoptosis:

1. Shrinkage of cells.

2. Cell forms tight sphere.

3. Cell membrane forms bubble-like blebs on the outer surface.

4. Occurrence of nuclear membrane break.

5. Endonucleolytic clearance of DNA at inter-nucleosomal sites occurs leading to

the degradation of chromatin.

6. Breakdown of mitochondria is found with the release of cytochrome C.

7. Breakage of cells into small fragments.

8. Engulfment of cells fragments by phagocytic cells:

Genetic Control of Apoptosis:

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Document Summary

For every cell, there is a fixed span of life, i. e. , time to live and time to die. This cell death is a very orderly process and so it is called programmed cell death or. It also protects the organism by removing damaged cells which may be due to viral infection or due to exposure to radiations. It also inhibits the tumor development and so any defect in the control of apoptosis may lead to cancer. There are two methods by which cells may die such as: death by injury that is through mechanical damage or due to toxic chemicals, by apoptosis, i. e. , through programmed cell death. Some apoptosis genes have already been identified which are responsible for switching on or off apoptosis. There are other factors that also regulate the process of apoptosis. One of them is the signal protein which is released either due to some cell injury or through cytokine medicated pathways.

Related Questions

1. Why is the process of gene rearrangement used in creating antibodies and T-cell receptors (TCRs) so important?

A. This is how our systems produce memory of pervious exposures, a key trait in adaptive immune responses.

B. Without it, we would need a single gene for every antibody and TCR required to mount all the possible responses need ed during our lives

C. interactions with antigens stimulate cells to initiate these processes, building the best and strongest response possible to the antigen

D. this is the same DNA altering process that leads to cancer. Understanding it leads to better treatments for cancer

2. Which of the following is NOT an antimicrobial substance?

A. keratin

B. Lysozyme

C. Defensins

D. Lactoferrins

E. Peroxidases

3. Which of the following is NOT an outcome of fever?

A. Direct destruction of microbes

B. increased release of pro-inflammatory cytokines

C. increased production of lymphocytes

D. increased phagocytic killing by leukocytes

E. increased production of interferons

4. Which of the following pattern recognition receptors is/are anchored in the host cell membrane?

A. Only C-type lectin receptors (CLRs)

B. Only RIG-like receptors (RLRs)

C. TLR and CLRs

D. Only toll-like receptors (TLRs)

E. NLRs and RLRs

F. Only NOD-like receptors (NLRs)

5. Fever allows the body to fight microbial invaders by which of the following mechanisms?

A.Fever plays all of these roles in the body

B. Fever prevents microbes with lower optimum temperatures from growing, giving the immune system time to eliminate those cells

C. Fever increases the inflammatory response, but reduces the production of interferons unless the invader is a dsRNA virus

D. A moderate fever reduces the inflammatory response but stimulates phagocytic activity in neutrophils and eosinophils

E. Fever increases the multiplication of lymphocytes and enhances the release of substances that attract basophils that then engulf the microbial invader

6. According to the clonal selection theory

A. Each B cell is already programmed to produce a specific antibody

B. B cells producing autoantibodies are eliminated in the thymus

C. Self-reactive T cells are killed in the thymus AND B cells producingautoantibodies are eliminated in the thymus

D. Seld-reactive T cells are killed in the thymus

7. Apoptosis

A. is a form of programmed cell death AND is induced in target cells by effector T cytotoxic cells

B. refers to the transformation of B cells into plasma cells

C. is induced in target cells by effector T cytotoxic cell AND results specifically in T cell death

D. results specifically in T cell death AND refers to the transformation of B cells into plama cells

9. Photosynthesis in plants requires the presence of the pigment ______________________, which is produced by _____________________________ within their cells.

10. Cytoskeleton is to animal cells as ______________________________ are to plant cells and bacteria.

11. Integral membrane proteins have both hydrophilic and ______________________regions that allow them to pass through the plasma membrane.

12. The prokaryotic world of bacteria have the most diverse types of _____________________________on their outer surfaces.

13. Some of a cell's __________________ are found on the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

14. The organelle that digests inorganic wastes, like H2O2, is known as the ____________________________.

15. The organelle that synthesizes proteins in eukaryotic cells is known as _____________________________.

16. A signaling molecule may bind to a protein on the surface of the plasma membrane. This protein is known as a/an ________________________.

17. The best analog to our ability to see, hear, smell and taste on the cell level comes in the form of protein receptors in the cellâs ________________________________________.

18. The supportive framework of a cell composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules is known as the ____________________________________.

19. The organelle that contains enzymes for intracellular digestion and programmed cell death is known as the _____________________________.

20. Any solution that is more dilute than cytoplasm, which would cause a cell to swell with water is known as a/an __________________________________ solution.

A human gene called the Î²-globin gene encodes a polypeptide that functions as a subunit of the protein known as hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is found within red blood cells; it carries oxygen. In human populations the Î²-globin gene can be found as the common allele known as Hb^A, and it can also be as the Hb^S allele. Individuals who have two copies of the Hb^S allele have the disease called sickle cell disease. Are the following examples descriptions of genetics at the molecular, cellular, organism, or population level?

A. The Hb^Sallele encodes a polypeptide that functions slightly differently from the polypeptide encoded by the Hb^Aallele.

B. If an individual has two copies of the Hb^Sallele, that persons red blood cells take on a sickle cell shape.

C. Individuals who have two copies of the Hb^Aallele do not have sickle cell disease, but are not resistant to malaria. People who have one Hb^Aallele and one Hb^S allele do not have sickle cell disease but are resistant to malaria. People who have two copies of the Hb^Sallele have sickle cell disease, and this disease may significantly shorten their lives.

D. Individuals with sickle cell disease have anemia because their red blood cells are easily destroyed by the body.

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BSC 422 Lecture Notes - Lecture 19: Linker Dna, Apoptosis, Cytochrome C

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