PSYCH 100 MidYear Study Notes
Chapter 1 – Science of Psychology
Psychology – The science of behavior
Why Study Psych?
Causal Events – Events that cause other events to occur
Studying the reasons for particular behaviours
Human behavior is the root of the world’s problems
Health related problems – Often caused by behavior
Fields of Psychology
Physiological psychology – Examine physiology of behavior, study phenomena that occur in non
human animals as well
Comparitive psychology – Explain behavior by studying members of a variety of species
Behaviour analysis – effect of environmental events on behavior – interested in learning and
motivation
Behaviour genetics – role of genetics in behavior
Cognitive psychology – study of mental processes and complex behaviours (e.g. perception,
attention, learning, memory)
Cognitive neuroscience – Similar to cognitive psych, but attempts to discover brain mechanisms
responsible for behaviours
Developmental psychology – Study of emotional and social development especially in children
Social psychology – Study of effects of people on people –> cause an effect relations, attitudes,
opinions, sexual behaviour etc.
Personality psychology – Study of individual differences in temperament and patterns of behavior
Evolutionary psychology – Looks to explain other aspects of psychology by looking at their
adaptive significance
Crosscultural psychology – study of the impact of culture on behavior
Clinical psychology – study of psychological disorders and problems of adjustment > most are
practitioners that try to help people solve their problems
Philosophical Roots of Psychology
Early people believed that their bodies were controlled by their minds or spirits: Animism
Ancient Greeks: “Do people have free will?”, “are people good or evil?”
Greek posed questions through rationalism – pursuit of truth through logic
Socrates – Perceptions are not the same as reality
Rene Descartes: World was a mechanic entity run by god, reactions were called reflexes, and
occurred mathematically> Descartes was proponent of dualism > belief that that reality can be
divided into mind and matter
John Locke > Disagreed with rationalism, and replaced with empiricism – pursuit of truth through
experience
George Berkeley > We must learn how to perceive, knowledge of events comes from past
experiences
James Mill – aminism to materialism: Reality can only be known through understanding of the
physical world Philsophical approack eventually abandoned for a scientific approach
Physiological Roots of Psychology
Johannes Muller: Doctrine of specific nerve energies > All messages sent along nerves was the
same
Pierre Flourens: Experimental ablation > Removing part of the brain, showed that parts of brain
have different purposes/functions
Paul Broca: Part of the brain is the central region for speech
Gustav Fritsch > Electrical stimulation for brain mapping
Hermann von Helmholtz > Successful measured speed of nerve impulse > Founder of
psychophysics > relation between physical characteristics of a stimulus and the perceptions
produced
Dualism
Theory that the mind and body are two separate entities that form the human experience
Physical bodies do not think, are made of physical matter
Materialism
Reality can only be known through an understanding of the physical world
Mind is as passive as the body
Empiricism
The belief that you can pursue truth through observation and experience
All knowledge must come through experience
Structuralism
First school of psychology > Wilhelm Wundt
Human experience is built of elemental sensations
Engaging in introspection (looking in)
Introspecion not reliable > Very subjective process
You don’t see an apple, you see red, crunchy, etc > add up to believe its an apple
Functionalism
Reaction to Wundt’s structuralism
William James
Focused on the process of conscious activity
Why do things happen, why do perceptions occur
Evolutionary standpoint (Darwin)
Biological basis for behaviours
Why do we see the apple?
Behaviourism
Began with John B. Watsons: Study of Psychology from a Behaviourist’s Standpoint
The study of the relations between one’s environment and their behavior Theory of learning that all behaviours come from conditioning
Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Some behavior that causes a good stimulus will be more likely to
reoccur, whereas a behavior that is responded with a bad stimulus will be less likely to occur again
Pavlov’s dogs
Humanism
Reaction to behaviourism and psychoanalysis
“nice” approach to study of psychology
Emphasizes self growth and realization, choice, creativity, and positive human experience
Belief that humans are innately good
Started by Abraham Maslow
Cognition
Studies mental processes, how people think, perceive and learn
How people acquire information
Different from behaviourism because it uses SCIENTIFIC methods to do research
Concerned with internal mental states
Week 2: Ways and Means of Psychology
Scientific Method – Method of investigation that espouses verifiability and objectability
5 Steps of the Scientific Method
1) Define purpose and formulate a hypothesis
2) Design a study (Procedure)
3) Collect data (Conduction of experiment and observation)
4) Analyze results
5) Formulate a conclusion from results and analysis, develop new hypothesis and share with others
3 Study Designs > Naturalist, Correlational, Experiments
Naturalist/clinical Observation (Case studies, Surveys)
Observation of people/animals in their NATURAL setting or while they are going under treatment
or diagnosis for a psychological condition
Least formal type of study
Constrained by the least amount of rules
Primarily qualitative
Cannot control what behaviours occur
Correlational Study
observational study in nature, but involves formal measurement of environmental events
Examine the relations of these measurements to explain observed behaviours
Does not manipulate variables in order to study causal events
Do not know about 3 variables (Controls) because variables are not being controlled
Experiments Manipulations of variables and observing results
Only study that can positively identify causal relations among events
What Comprises a Good Experimental Design?
Independent variable is of all other variables
Dependent variable should depend on independent variable ONLY
Confounds (3 variables) must be controlled
Having an experimental group and a control group
Samples are unbiased and assignment randomly
Selection of Participants
To avoid bias, particpants must be assigned randomly
Participants must be assured that participation is voluntary
Hawthorne Effect: The knowledge that an experiment is being conducted changes the behavior of
the experiment
Participants must not know the hypothesis of the researcher
Deception is sometimes used to make the participant not have knowledge on the hypothesis
Deception must be disclosed to the participant at the earliest possible point
Validity – How appropriate the operations of a study are to the researcher’s hypothesis
Reliability – Operation that produces consistent results
Subjective Results – Results that are subject to some sort of evaluation by the researcher
Objective Results – Results that are conclusive in their own right, are not in the hands of the research
(uninfluenced by points of view)
Single and Double Blind Studies
Single Blind study – Participant in which the participant does not know the independent variable,
e.g. when you give participant a placebo
Double Blind study – When the researcher and participant do not know the independent variable
> Especially good in subjective studies so that researcher does not bias results towards
hypothesis. Example: Having the researcher not know if the participant has received the placebo
or real drug.
Self Report and ratings measures
On a survey
Participants answer questions about themselves
Selfreport is not entirely reliable, has high variability because subjects will answer questions on
their own perception of themselves, or how they want to be perceived
Generality – Correlational studies have a high generality, because they can be extrapolated to larger groups
of the population.
Descriptive Statistics Summarize data in a meaningful fashion
Organization of raw data into a form that is easy to comprehend
Mean, median, mode > Measures of central tendency
Variability – how spread out the data is, measured by range and standard deviation (the extent to
which each scores differs from the mean)
Measurement of relations > Correlation coefficient, expresses strength of a relation from 1 > +1
(0 denotes no correlation)
Inferential Statistics
Enable to calculate the probability that results are due to chance
Tells whether or not results are significant
Making sure samples are unbiased
Good experiments have high replicability
Psychological claims in the Media
Many psychological claims in the media are backed up by unreliable statistics
Statistics are often incorrect, averages are used incorrectly and data is not normally distributed
Ethical issues in psychological studies
Emotional and physical safety of participants
Protect people’s best interests
Ethical treatment of animals
Confidentiality of participants information
Deception and potential effects
Ethical Treatment of Participants
1) Minimize harm to participants
2) Maximize benefits of research to participants and society in general
3) Participants should be fully informed about the nature of the research and informed consent must
be voluntary
4) Deception is intolerable, except for in limited circumstances
5) Intrusion of private lives of participants without permission is unacceptable
6) With certain exceptions, information will be kept anonymous and confidential
7) Vulnerable populations should be treated with care
Ethical Treatment – Then and Now
Wendell Johnson Speech Impediment experiment
Studies received harmful procedures, were not given informed consent, they were deceived and
made vulnerable
Medical studies in Africa allowed men with syphilis to remain untreated for experimental purposes
Week 3: Lifestyle Stress and Health
Cultural Evolution on Lifestyle Choices Cultural Evolution > Adaptive change to recurrent environmental pressures
Driven by human intellect and physical capacity
Lifestyle > Aggregate behavior of a person
Has given more flexibility in lifestyle, allowing for a higher standard of living
Has given us more choices for how we lead our lives
More unhealthy choices due to cultural evolution
Nutrition and Exercise
Foods that are high in fats naturally taste better to humans
Diets have changed through time, higher fat diets are common now
High fat diets link to coronary heart disease and cancer
Most people today live sedentary lifestyles
Exercising regularly accumulates less body fat and makes one less vulnerable to stress
Prolonged exercise activates dopamine, reduces blood pressure, decreases LDL’s
Health Belief Model
Behaviour regarding health depends on:
Whether someone believes in the health threat
Whether one believes the behavior will help reduce the health threat
Cigarette Smoking
Risks of smoking only recently discovered in the past few decades
Passive smoking is related to CHD
Adolescents who have favourable impressions of a smoker are more likely to imitate that person’s
actions
Evidence for intergenerational smoking
Nicotine stimulates postsynaptic receptors sensitive to acetylcholine, effecting CNS
Health Effects of Alcohol Abuse
Reduces inhibitory controls on behavior
Slurred speech, can lead to unconsciousness and death
More likely to engage in unprotected sex
Fetal alcohol syndrome in babies with heavy drinking mothers > Retards development of CNS of
baby
Heavy Drinkers sometimes suffer delirium tremens; withdrawal symptoms such as trembling,
irritability, etc. when they attempt to quit drinking
Many students overestimate how much their peers drink > otherwise known as Pluralistic
Ignorance > misconception of what is normative
Treatment of Alcoholism
Aversion therapy is sometimes used
Less intrusive therapy is used in other cases
Less intrusive therapy consists of: 1) Identifying circumstances for behavior to occur
2) Teaching individual to behave in incompatible ways with the behavior
3) Giving individual confidence he/she can overcome addiction
4) View set backs as learning experiences and temporary
Treatment is only moderately successful (3050%)
Sexually Transmitted Disease
Lifestyle choice to have unprotected sex leads to a host of fucked up shit
E.g. Gonorrhea, herpes, syphilis, AIDS.
AIDS is often transmitted by needles, as well as jizz
Ways to prevent STI’s: Wear condoms, clean needle programs, prevention programs
Alcohol myopia > When you drink, you still want sex, but risks of getting an STI disappear into
the mist.
Preventing Unhealthy Lifestyles
Unhealthy lifestyles occur because shortterm reward (immediate gratification) out weighs long
term rewards (health)
E.g. you eat a burger and fries, instead of a salad, because it tastes better at the time
Selfcontrol: Behaviour that produces a larger, long term reward, when faced with a small, short
term reward
Selfcontrol requires a prior commitment, to make decisions before
If you wait longer, the immediate benefit of shortterm reward will seem to outweigh the long term
reward (at the moment of decision)
Selfcontrol known as a limited resource > if you stay in all day to study, you may later smoke 20
doobies because you have no selfcontrol left
Stress
Stress > Pattern of physiological, behavioral, cognitive or emotional responses to real or imagined stimuli
that are perceived to be blocking a goal or wellbeing.
Stimuli are usually Aversive and are called stressors
Stress can be maladaptive, can produce anxiety, impairing ability. Also, prolonged and chronic stress is
maladaptive > Increases risk for illness
Physiological Stress Response
Hypothalamus sends signals to autonomic nervous system
Heart rate increase, blood pressure rises, blood sugar rises, blood flow is directed away from
extremities
Breathing becomes deeper and faster
Digestion stops, perspiration increase
Secretion of epinephrine from adreal gland General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
3 stage physiological stress response to severe stressors > fight or flight response
1) Alarm > Shock, normal functioning and resistance level is slightly impaired
2) Stage of resistance > Function and resistance level returns to normal, and then goes to above
normal levels
3) Stage of exhaustion > Loses ability to adapt, resistance plummets to belownormal levels
Personalities and Stress
Certain personalities are less likely to be affected by stress and develop CHD
Type A pattern > Disease prone pattern > excessive competitive drive, impatience, hostility, fast
movements, rapid speech
Type B pattern > Less competitive, less hostile, more patient, easygoing and tolerant
Type A is more likely to suffer from CHD
PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder)
After a prolonged exposure to a stressor
Causes low levels of emotion, social withdrawal
KEY CHARACTERIZATION: FLASHBACKS
Severity depends on sex, severity of event, level of educational achievement, past psychiatric
illness
PTSD can strike at any age
Excessive use of alcohol is common with PTSD
Stress on the Immune System
Stress can suppress the immune system > Resulting in a greater likelihood of contracting
infections diseases
Stress increases secretion of glucocorticoids > Suppress activity of immune system
Cognitive Appraisal
Stress levels are affected by cognitive appraisal of stress > Perception of situation
Two stage process: Evaluating threat posed by stressor > If threat is real assess whether resources
necessary to cope with threat are adequate
Coping with Stress
Life stressors can be measured on the SRRS: Social readjustment rating scale
Problem Focused Coping > Aimed at changing a stressful situation by eliminating or reducing it
Emotion focused coping > Aimed at reducing emotional response to a stressful situation
Proactive coping > Preventing the onset of stressful events
Stress Treatments
Aerobic Exercise > Lower blood pressure makes people feel better
Cognitive reappraisal > Reappraising the stressor as less threatening to reduce stress > Shows
individual he/she can control stressful situations Relaxation Training > Recognizing the experience of stress, attempt to begin relax, focusing on
relaxing groups of muscles at a time. (Progressive relaxation technique)
Social Support > Help that we receive from each other
Stress Inoculation Training
Stress Inoculation Training
Developed by Meichenbaum
Like receiving a “stress shot”
3 phases, 7 steps
Conceptualization phase (of the transactional nature of stress) > Skill acquisition and rehearsal
phase (practicing and learning problemsolving skills) > Application and follow through phase
(Practicing imagery of coping with stressor)
Week 4 – Nature and Causes of Mental Disorders
What is a mental disorder?
Abnormal Behaviour > Means any departure from the normal
Abnormal behavior is not necessarily maladaptive
Maladaptive behavior is the most important feature in a psychological disorder
Diagnosis of a mental disorder should be objective as possible but may never be completely free
from subjectivity
11% of Canadians suffer from mental disorders or substance abuse problem
Definitions
Symptom > A persons’s action (crying, pain, nausea) that could indicate a disorder
Syndrome > Constellation of interrelated symptoms
Perspectives on Psychological Disorders
Psychodynamic Perspective
Conflict between the three components of the mind, the ego, superego and id
Attempt to make clients aware of their intrapsychic conflicts
Medical Perspective
Physicians developed the concept of mental illnesses, illnesses of the mind
Medical perspective today is the treatment of sever psychological disorders on an outpatient basis
with drugs that decrease or eliminate symptoms
Based on that mental illnesses are caused by abnormalities of the brain
CognitiveBehavioural Perspective
Learned maladaptive behavior can best be learned by focusing on environmental factors and one’s
perception of the factors
Behaviour is caused by the interaction with one and one’s environment
Humanistic Perspective Psychological Disorders arise when people perceive that they must learn the positive regard of
others
People become overly sensitive to criticisms and all that bullshit, and then lack internal value of
self
Sociocultural Perspective
Cultural variables influence the nature and extent to which behavior is maladaptive
What is considered normal in one culture may be considered abnormal in another
Biopsychosocial Perspective
Combination of many perspectives on psychological disorders
Diathesisstress model > Combination of genes and early learning experiences may cause
predispositions for psychological disorders
DSM Multiaxial Classification System
Major classification of Mental disorders in North America
Axis 1: Clincal Syndromes – Schizophrenia, sleep disorders, somatoform, anxiety disorders
Axis 2: Personality Disorders: Borderline personality, antisocial, avoidant
Axis 3: General Medical Disorders: Infections and parasitic diseases, disease of the blood
Axis 4: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems: Problems with support groups, government, etc.
Axis 5: Global Assessment of Functioning Scale: Scale from 1100 of how well the patient functions. 100
is no impairment, 50 is serious problems in function, 10 means impairment that may result in injury of
others
DSMIV criteria for a mental disorder
1) Disorder must be clinically significant
2) Disorder must not be entirely external (e.g. sadness from death in the family)
3) Behaviour must not be voluntary (e.g. protesting the government)
Problems with DSM
Slightly more consistent with the medical perspective on psychological disorders
Reliability > Not always reliable, not a cookiecutter method
Validity based on using categorization > Rosenhan’s Pseudopatient experiment > All were
surprisingly admitted to hospitals
Must be careful not to label patients by their symptoms
Why Classify?
Proper classification in a specific category results in the development in successful treatment of
the patient Clinical vs. Actuarial Diagnosis
Clinicians can gather data and interpret them in two ways: Actuarial and Clinical method
Clinical > Judgments basesd on an expert’s experience; based on the experts recollection of
similar cases and on knowledge of the symptoms
Actuarial > Use statistical rules to relate indicators for particular outcomes. E.g. Used to devise
life insurance polices
Actuarial more formal than Clinical
AttentionDeficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Criteria
Symptoms must be associated prior to age 7
Impairment must be displayed in two different settings
Characteristics
Marked by the failure to attend closely to details
Tendency to make careless errors
Switch frequently between unfinished tasks
Hyperactive, squirming when seated, excessive running and talking in inappropriate scenarios
Often have a thickened cerebral cortex
Causes
Heritable disorder
Insufficiency of dopamine in neural pathways
Autistic Disorder
Criteria
Must appear prior to age 3
Characteristics
Abnormality of social interaction, failure to use nonverbal behaviours
Little inclination to form friendships
Prefer to be alone
Perform much worse on the “SallyAnne false belief task”
Causes
Really unknown
Anxiety Disorders:
Anxiety > Sense of apprehension accompanied with physiological reactions like increased heart rate
Anxiety Disorders are MOST COMMON phsychological disorder in humans
GAD: General Anxiety Disorder Description
Chronic worry about everything
Various physiological symptoms
Muscle tension, insomnia, restlessness
Causes
Generally unknown, potentially genetic component
Panic Disorder (Anxiety Disorder)
Description
Feeling of extreme fear and hopelessness
Experience episodic attacks of acute anxiety
Shortness of breath, clammy sweat, irregular heartbeat, dizziness, faintness, often feels like he/she
is going to die
Victims tend to suffer from anticipatory anxiety > fear of having a panic attack
Can cause a phobia through classical conditioning
Causes
Could be medical, has a hereditary component
Panic disorder victims breathe irregularly
Sensitivity to danger in their environment
Phobic Disorder (Anxiety)
Description
Irrational fear of specific objects or situations
Considered phobic disorder only when fear makes their life difficult
Most serious is Agoraphobia: Fear of being in places or situations where escape is difficult (open
spaces) > Most debilitating phobia > people can often not go out with out having panic attacks
Causes
Direct classical conditioning > Fear once caused an unpleasant situation
Vicarious classical conditioning > Observing another person show fright towards a scenario or
object
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (Anxiety):
Description
Defense against anxiety, compulsive behavior
Compulsive behavior demands more and more of their time
Females slightly more likely than men to have OCD
Two types of obsessions > obsessive doubt or uncertainty or fear of doing something prohibited
Comprised of obsessions and compulsions Obsessions > Unwanted, irrational thoughts that patient cannot stop thinking about
Compulsions > Behaviours that reduce anxiety
Most compulsions fall under counting, checking, cleaning and avoidance
Causes
Defense mechanism against anxiety
Taking your mind of your anxiety with something neutral
Some genetic component
Many people with Tourettes syndrome meet diagnostic criteria for OCD
Somatization Disorder
Description
An apparent body or physical problem for which there is no physiological basis
Hypochondriasis > Interpreting minor physical sensations as signs that there is a serious
underlying disease
Most prevalent in women, much rarer in men
Causes
Tends to run in families
Closely related with antisocial behavior
Conversion disorder (Somatoform disorder)
Description
Physical complaints that resemble neurological disorders but have no pathological basis
Complaints of blindness, deafness, paralysis, loss of feeling
Causes
Psychoanalysts point to unresolved sexual conflicts
Behaviourists say that conversion disorder can be learned
People with the disorder often have had other physical problems with which they are familiar
Dissociative Disorders
Anxiety is reduced by a sudden disruption in consciousness
Dissociative amnesia > Patient does not remember/is not able to remember diverse traumatic
events in which they are the source of the stress
Dissociative fugue > Person cannot remember his or her self, or his/her past, will relocate and
may establish a new life
Dissociative identity disorder > Presence of two or more separate personalities, which maybe
dominant at any present time
Causes
Explained as responses to severe conflicts from intolerable impulses Or guilt from an actual misdeed
CultureBound Syndromes
Psychological disorder found within only a few cultures
Example: Koro, when your dick feels like its going to retract into your body and kill you…
Personality disorders > Antisocial and Borderline Personality Disorders
Antisocial Disorder
Characteristics
Failure to conform to common standards of decency
Repeated lying and stealing
Failure to sustain longlasting relationships
Lack of guilt
Must have 3 types of behaviours before 15 and 4 types after 18
Found in 50% of prison population
More prevalent in men
Psychopaths
Causes
Lack of ability to become aware of important experiences of life
Hypothesized that unresponsive autonomic nervous system is result
Parenting > strongly related to the development of antisocial disorder > parents that are not
consistent to their children
Borderline Personality Disorder
Characteristics
Strenuous Efforts to resist abandonment from others
Intense, shortlived relationships with others
Sudden shifts in selfimage, including goals and aspirations
Impulsivity, irresponsible bingeing, spending and substance abuse
Recurrent selfmutilating or suicidal behavior
Causes
Modest heritability
Environmental factors such as childhood sexual and physical abuse
Week 5 Nature and Causes of Psychological Disorders
Substance Related Disorders
Charactersistics Addiction to a substance
Can cause social occupational or medical problems
Substance Dependence on the substance
Substance Abuse: Needs to meet one of the criteria: 1) Failure to fulfill important obligations 2)
Using substance in dangerous situations 3) Legal Problems with substance 4) Regular use causing
social or interpersonal problems
Substance Intoxication: When you’re fucked up when getting assessed. Must be experiencing
clinically significant negative effects
Substance Withdrawal: Unpleasant physiological or psychological effects when patient stops
consuming substance
SubstanceInduced Psychotic Disorder – Delusions from consuming a psychoactive substance
Causes
Certain drugs activate reinforcement system of brain
Environmental effects
Heredity effects
Withdrawal symptoms make it difficult to break the habit
Schizophrenic Disorders
Description
A group of psychological disorders involving distortions of though, perceptions and emotion
Positive and Negative symptoms
Must be characterized by 2 of: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized behavior, disorganized
speech, or negative symptoms
Postive symptoms > Delusions, hallucinations
Delusions of persecution (people are out to get you), Delusions of grandeur (beliefs in one’s
power), delusions of control (being controlled by others through a radio)
Hallucinations > Perceptions of stimuli that are actually not present
Excessive Dopamine Levels
Types of Schizophrenia
Paranoid Schizophrenia > Mainly about delusions. Note: Not always paranoid about being
persecuted
Disorganized Schizophrenia > Disorders, with inappropriate social behaviours, word salads
Catatonic schizophrenia > Extreme motor disturbances, excitement and stupor. May exhibit waxy
flexibility, where limbs are molded into weird shapes and held for a long time. Also , display
negative symptoms
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia > Have delusions of above 3 schizophrenias, but cannot be
classified
Causes
Substantial genetic component to the predisposition of schizophrenia
Identical twins are much more likely to have schizophrenia
Larger ventricles and absence of some grey matter is present in schizophrenic patients
Children born in the winter months more likely to likely to develop Certain environments will trigger various disorders, such as schizophrenia
Dopamine Hypothesis – Abnormal activity of dopaminecontaining neuron causes schizophrenia
Glutamate transmission > People who take PCP block glutamate transmission > have
schizophrenic behavior, when they don’t have it
Studies have shown that children who have overprotective parents are more likely to develop
schizophrenia
VERY COMPLEX CAUSATION
Mood Disorders
Shifts or disturbances in mood that cause disturbances in normal perception, though and behavior
Characterized by depression, or depression and euphoria combined
Bipolar I Disorder – Episodes of mania sometimes with anxiety accompanied by major
depression
Bipolar II disorder – Major depression accompanied by less severe mania (hypomanic episodes)
Major depressive disorder – Persistent, severe feelings of worthlessness and sadness
Dysthymic Disorder – Less severe form of depression
Mania
Elation and selfconfidence
Contradiction or interference makes people angry
Rapid speech
Full of grandiose plans
Restless and hyperactive
Delusional and often have hallucinations
All cases where Mania is present is considered bipolar disorder by DSMIV
Depression
Sad and apathetic mood
Feelings of worthlessness and hopelessness
Desire to withdraw from other people
Sleeplessness and loss of appetite
Change in activity level, to lethargy or agitation
Most people who are depressed have a dysthymic disorder
Severe depression often causes delusions > especially that they are physically rotting away
Causes
Most depressed people are generally negative about themselves
Attribution of negative events to own short comings
Has a genetic component
Lower levels of norepinephrine and serotonin cause depression
Sleep levels effect depression > Seasonal Depressive disorder > Days are short and nights are
long
Week 6 Treatment of Psychological Disorders
Early Treatment Earliest known treatment > Trephining: Drilling holes into patient’s skull
Most people with psychological problems were put in asylums, were they were treated
inhumanely
Phillippe Pinel > Believed that most mental patients would respond favourably to kind treatment
Dorthea Dix > Lead the campaign for humane treatment of mental patients
Development of Psychotherapy
Anton Mesmer > hypnosis, alleviated some symptoms of patients
Freud started practice of psychoanalysis
Most modern therapists use an eclectic approach > whatever methods that the therapist thinks will
work at the time
Insight Therapies (Psychoanalysis, clientcentered therapy, Gestalt therapy)
Assume that people are normal but learn maladaptive thoughts processes
Behavior is a symptom of deeper psychological problems
Psychoanalysis
Aimed at providing client with insight into motivations and impulses
Source of conflicts can be routed to sexual and aggressive urges
“veil of amnesia” the moment technique is learned
Free association > client speaks freely, without censoring any thoughts
Dreams were crucial component
Patient on couch, “and how does that make you feel?”
Interested in unconscious processes
Stages of psychoanalysis
Resistance > Client becomes defensive and unconsciously tries to halt further insight by
censoring his/her true feelings
Client beings to change topic, miss appointments, forget what he/she was going to say
Transference – The projection of powerful attitudes upon the therapist (love/hate). Freud believed
transference was essential for the success of therapy, due to client reliving past experiences
Countertransference > The therapist projects emotions upon the client. Undesirable, and
unhealthy, client must stay detached
Modern Psychodynamic Therapy
Brief psychodynamic therapy > takes shorter amount of time.
1025 sessions
Freud’s method took years to complete
ClientCentered Therapy
Humanistic Therapy > providing client with greater understanding of his or her self
Carl Roger’s developed ClientCentered Therapy > Client decides what to talk about without
direction or judgment of therapist Roger’s believed that the cause of many psychological problems was the differences between
one’s ideal self and one’s real self. This was called incongruence
Patient is treated with unconditional positive regard
Acceptance of the person does not mean acceptance and approval of theier behavior
Therapist displays empathy, and it must be Genuine to be successful
Gestalt Therapy (Humanistic Therapy)
Fritz Perls emphasized unity of mind and body
Emphasis on present experience
Quite confrontational, challenging client to be honest about problems
Getting in touch with inner experiences
Empty chair technique > Talking as if someone was in the chair sitting next to the client
Behaviour and CognitiveBehaviour Therapies
Systematic Desensitization > Removal of an unpleasant emotional response and replace it with
relaxation
Creates a hierarchy of anxiety related stimuli
Slowly desensitize client
In vivo exposure > Ridding clients of fear by arousing fears at a intense level
Imaginal Exposure > Imagining as graphically as possible, the most frightening encounters with
the client’s phobia
Aversion Therapy – Rearranging effects of behavior and consequences to eliminate maladaptive
behavior
E.g. smacking a kid when he takes the cookie from the jar
Overall use is waning
Reinforcement of Adaptive Behaviours
Giving a kid a pat on the back cause he’s cool like that. (He mowed the lawn)
Token Economies
Giving gold stars to the good kids
Modelling
Clients make much better progress when there is access to a model who provides samples of
adaptive/wanted behaviours
Assertiveness Therapy
Often used for coping skills in interpersonal situations
Extinction of Maladaptive Behaviours
Behaviour is eliminated by removing previously available enforcers
For example: Ignoring a kids temper tantrum, and not rewarding it
Punishment of Maladaptive Behaviors
CognitiveBehaviour Therapies Based on changing maladaptive thoughts, beliefs and perceptions
Rational Emotive Therapy
Highly directive and confrontational
Inappropriate emotions can be abolished only by a change in the belief system
Therapist disputes with client that beliefs are inappropriate
Useful for depression
Group Psychotherapy
Sometimes more effective
Usually more convenient or economical
Allows therapist to observe actual interactions
Message is more convincing from a group of people with a therapist
Process of seeing maladaptive behavior often gives insight
People learn that they are not alone
Structural Family Therapy
Restructuring of a family dynamics in many ways
Healthiest interaction scome from a marital subsystem, consisting of unity from husband and wife,
not childoriented
Community Psychology
Address psychological problems through assessment of contexts of which problems develop
Changing the environment to promote mental health
Preventive psychology > Primary and secondary prevention
Primary prevention > Eliminating conditions responsible for problems, e.g. giving children
educational materials
Secondary prevention > Prompt identification of problems and immediate intervention. E.g.
suicide hotlines
Effectiveness of Psychotherapy
It is very hard to assess the effectiveness of psychotherapy due to problems of measurement >
you can’t really measure a person’s dysfunction
Selfselection makes it very difficult to establish a stable sample group
Metaanalysis > Estimation of the magnitude of experimental effects reported by published
studies
Effectiveness in all types is effected by therapeutic alliance > relationship between client and
therapist
Drug Therapy
Also called pharmacotherapy
Target abnormal neural and other physiological functions
4 Types of drugs
Antipsychotic drugs: Effect the dopamine system > Chlorpromazine > first drug
Reduce delusions and hallucinations Antipsychotic drugs gave unwanted symptoms > Tardive Dyskinesia (shaking)
Antidepressant drugs: Several types of antidepressants
Tricyclics: Block reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin
MAOI’s: Monoamine oxidase inhibitors: Block oxidases from breaking down norepinephrine and
dopamine
SSRI’s: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: Prevent reuptake of serotonin > Have much less
side effects
Antimanic drugs: Lithium carbonate is most effect drug > poses several dangerous threats >
very toxic when overdosed
Mood stabilizers > Work on GABA (gammaamino buteric acid) and inhibit neural activity
Antianxiety drugs: Benzodiazepines > Not a long term solution to anxiety episodes
ECT Therapy
Electroconvulsive Therapy
Shocking parents with electrodes
Can be effective in resistant clients with major depressive or severe manic disorders
Controversial form of treatment due to mistreatment
Psychosurgery
Example: Cutting out a corpus collosum
Cingulotomies > Cutting cingulum bundle, between prefrontal cortex and limbic system > helps
people with severe OCD
Must be used as a last resort, and consent must be given
Assessment Methods for Psychological Disorders
Clincal intervies
Questionnaires
Behavioural Monitoring
Cognitive tests >
Week 7 – Biology of Behaviour
The Nervous System
2 parts of the nervous system
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Autonomic and muscular nervous system
Cranial nerves > Nerves from neck and head area
Spinal nerves > Information from rest of body
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system
Spinal cord > Long bundle of nerve cells
Composed of two types of cells > nerve cells and glial cells Glial cells > support neurons > give oxygen and nutrients
Neurons
Neurons
Specialized cells capable of sending information
Held together by glial cells
Distinct Features
Cell body
Nucleus – Contains genes (DNA)
Dendrites – Where information is received > Tree like protrusions
Axon > Carries information from cell to other cells
Terminal Button > Sites where information is passed to other cell
Myelin Sheaths > Around axons > Part protein and part fat > produced by glial cells > Insulate
axons from one another
Example of Myelin Sheaths: Multiple Sclerosis > Degenerative nerve disease > axons no longer
function properly due to myelin sheaths being attacked
Types of Neurons
Sensory Neurons – Send information from the physical world from the body to the brain
Motor Neurons – Direct muscles to contract or relax > Brain to Body
Interneurons – Deliver neurons between sensory and motor neurons
The Action Potential
Short lived reversal of electrical charge in the axon that allows for the transfer of information in
the next cell
Occurs because an unequal ionic charge in and outside of cell
All or None law: Action potentials do not vary in size
Information is represented by a rate of firing and amount of firing axons
Action potential can be sped up with myelin (insulation)
Normally:
Outside of membrane is POSITIVELY charged
Inside is NEGATIVELY charged
Resting potential of 70 mV
During Action Potential
Ion channels open
Postively charged sodium ions come into cell, causes charge reversal
Causes nearby ion channels to open, sending message down axon
After Action Potential Ion channels close and potassium channels allow potassium to flow out of cell to restore charge
Potassiumsodium pumps pump sodium out of cell and potassium back into cell afterwards
The Synapse
Communication of two neurons
Presynaptic neuron is the neuron sending message
Postsynaptic neuron > receiving message
Two types of synapses > Excitatory synapses and inhibitory synapses
Excitatory synapse > Neurotransmitter excites postsynaptic neuron
Inhibitory synapses > neurotransmitter inhibits postsynaptic neuron > makes it less likely for
axons to fire
How it Works
Action potential reaches terminal button
Releases neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft (space between button and receptor)
Neurotransmitters are embedded in postsynaptic membrane through transmitters
Reuptake
Effects are terminated by reuptake of neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter taken back by button
Faster reuptake occurs > shorter the effects of neurotransmitter will be on neuron
Inhibition of reuptake by drugs = Increasing effect of neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters
Most synaptic communication in brain is done by glutamate and GABA
Glutamate
Most important excitatory neurotransmitter in brain
NMDA receptor is partially deactivated by alcohol > why we get blackout drunk
GABA (Gammaamino butyric acid)
Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter
Barbiturates increase sensitivity of neurotransmitter
Antianxiety drugs > Benzodiazepines work on GABA
Acetylcholine
Primary neurotransmitter secreted by axons of motor neurons
Deactivation by enzyme acetylcholinesterase
Receptors of acetylcholine receptors
Dopamine
Attention , learning, reinforcing effects of drugs
People with Parkinson’s are given LDOPA Involved in schizophrenia
Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine increases attentiveness in the envi
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