POLB70 MidTerm Study Guide
Part 1 – Multiple Choice
Part 2 – Terminology Identification
Aristocracy (rule of aristoi)
- rule of +1 philosopherking
- Aristocracy → Timocracy
caused by civil war in ruling group of aristocracy
iron/bronze types → life of $making; gold/silver → life of virtue & order
result is a middle way = mixed constitution of good & bad
Shares features of aristocracy Shares features of oligarchy
- rulers are respected - won’t appoint wise leaders
- fighters not laborers - incline towards ‘spiritedness’ (thumos)
- communal life - war-like
- physical training - love of $-making
- Aristocracy → Oligarchy
Aristoi (best must rule)
- Plato: aristoi must rule for polis to act as 1 unit w/ common purpose
b/c matter of justice: it’s just that only best should rule
- aristoi = philosopherking
kallipolis only exist when philosophers rule as kings
leading genuinely & adequately philosophize, until political power & philosophy entirely
coincide
best of complete guardians – who believes to pursue what’s advantageous to city &
unwilling to kreitton
- government of kallipolis = aristocracy
- implies inequality
lessthangood members of city obliged to obey rulers generates resentment w/in city
- rule of law (personal rulership) vs. rule of man (institutional/legalistic rulership)
statesmanship = expert knowledge; essence of statesmanship = possession of knowledge,
not power
rulers can’t access expert knowledge of statesmanship :. must have laws
Autarkeia (selfsufficient & independent)
- describing the polis
Cave Allegory
1. prisoners = us who don’t understand reality & thinks shadows are
2. liberated person = philosopher who sees world as truly is
should rule
Cephalus
- introduced major topic of ‘justice’ via talk of old age
like liberating release from savage tyrannical master; brings freedom from bodily
appetites & desires
fears death & afterlife → compels evaluation of own life: whether unjust to anyone
- foreshadows idea of tyranny, class structure of political society, $making as way of life,
moral conduct
- wealthy, part of $making class, yet questions why material wealth is thought to be valuable
Citizenship (1 who is entitled to participate in office)
- right of participation in public life of your polis = citizen
only those w/ proper leisure & ability to take part in public life
not mere residence b/c aliens (like Aristotle) are not, although reside
can’t base on whether have access to legal process; since foreigners can access lawcourts
can’t base on privileges/honors form state; since state awards honors to foreigners
- exclusions:
women slaves
children
workers (nonegalitarian Aristotle O equality, Pharmony & virtue of entire state
- not moral question:
good person ≠ good citizen
good citizen = function to serve state
can be person of vice & still possess virtue of good citizen
Community of wives
Contemplative life vs. active life
- good constitution = good life
- good life = contemplative life/active life?
happiness = activity in accordance w/ virtue
but even contemplation can be action of certain kind, when directed towards livingwell
Democracy (rule of the poor people/mass [demos])
- Plato: suspects it, as not all is fit to rule
never proper regime for kallipolis b/c rule of demos is not of aristoi & not according to
virtue
unjust to establish relation of ruling & being ruled contrary to nature = worst rule over
best
not a constitution (but supermarket of constitutions)
unfair:
b/c giving equal share in ruling all = lessqualified in positions of power
injustice b/c lower classes meddling & interfering in work rightfully belonging to
Guardians
dangerous:
b/c driven by freedom of masses to pursue their desires (utilitarianism = society should be
organized to maximize preferencesatisfaction)
extreme freedom → extreme slavery b/c instead of mastering desires, we become slaves to desires
- Democracy → Tyranny
freedom to pursue & satisfy desires soon become insatiable; more we satisfy existing
desires, more we feel there are more we haven’t satisfied
Internal class conflict in democratic city caused by competition to satisfy their own
desires. People set up 1 man as champion – but man transforms → wolf = tyrant
Demos (common ppl)
Desire/appetitive (Plato’s 3 kinds of desire)
Elenchus, elenctic method
- ‘Socratic method’ of reasoning = questioning
form of inquiry proceeded by question, then exploring diff. possible ways to answer
Republic : Socrates criticizes definitions of justice by telling what it is not, and not what it
is
- not designed to show what we know, but what we don’t
Ethos (rule of custom)
- permanent part of natural order = unchanging from generation to generation
Eudaimonia (happiness/condition of living well)
- Aristotle ethical thought: Doctrine of the Good
humans distinctive b/c live according to plan & can deliberate actions & desired goal,
unlike animals
ultimate good we desire for its own sake not just b/c it leads to another good
person who enjoys eudaimonia = fully human, living complete & good life
‘activity of the soul in accordance w/ virtue’ = human good only achieved when doing
things engaged in purposeful human actions
- social good:
humans fully happy when live together (friendship – can’t enjoy by self, have to have
another involved)
- eudaimonia impossible w/out politics: belongs to most authoritative art = master art (politics of this nature)
politics legislates what to do/not do
- polis = koinonia to cultivate virtue, intend members to live good life (eudaimonia), telos =
perfect & autarkeia
state exists not for basic protection & survival, but for ethical reasons – make ppl more
virtuous
Form of the Good
- ultimate object of knowledge & from the Good things that are just gain their usefulness &
value
- humans compelled to pursue the Good, but none can do successfully without philosophical
reasoning
- Forms cannot be perceived by human senses, must be seen through the mind's eye
- Plato: justice, truth, equality, beauty & others ultimately derive from Form of the Good.
Goods (intrinsic vs. instrumental)
Guardians
Gyges' ring
- magical artifact granted owner power of invisibility at will
- if owned, would one steal, cheat, commit criminal acts
- no one ever wants to be just, only unwillingly b/c forced by bad consequences
Household
- ‘state has a natural priority over the household and over any individual among us. For the
whole must be prior to the part…’
- state diff from household
relationship btw members: state = principle of equality, household = inequality &
dependence (masterslave, husbandwife, fatherchild)
can’t manage private household w/out dependence of members upon head of household
- whether distinction btw free & slave is of
convention (nomos) nature (phusis) = slavery of natural order → naturallyfree persons = well suited for
political life, natural slaves = living property/tool
Justice (dikaiosune)
- main topic introduce by Cephalus who fears death & afterlife → compels evaluation of own
life: whether unjust to anyone
- Thrasymachus: justice = kreitton
- is a ‘virtue’ b/c it serves as a necessary function for soul to live happy = Plato concludes: just
person is a happy person
- is a ‘good’:
1. intrinsic = valued in itself for own sake, irrespective of outcome; even bad consequences
attached, existence of good itself is enough to justify valuing it
2. instrumental = valued not for itself, but for positive consequences that result (i.e. physical
training b/c produces good health)
3. (justice is) combination = value justice b/c intrinsically valuable, also b/c is attached to
desirable rewards & consequences (Gyge’s ring)
- soul:
mustn’t look at rewards gained in life by appearing just, but how benefits soul
just city (each class performs own designated function) = just man (3 parts of soul
perform own function)
Plato’s justice = doing one’s own work; injustice (civil war)= exchanging & meddling btw
classes
City Soul
Guardians ↔ Rational
Auxiliars ↔ thumos
Workers, $ ↔ Appetitive
makers
Kallipolis (luxurious city)
1. division of labour = fulfill multiple needs :. multiple crafts
every craftsmen practice 1 craft he’s naturally suited to b/c goods better produced when attention undivided
2. guardians = to meet luxurious lifestyle, expansion requires ‘special class’ trained in art of
warfare
3. guardian’s lifestyle = austere – no private property, revenue from public funds, common
messes, public housing, sharing of wives
4. class structure
Guardians
Auxiliaries
Labourers/ $makers
- Plato’s ideal city that’s completely happy = just city:
to deny injustice makes for happier life
nd
city functions as 1 as soul does :. individual happiness 2 to happiness whole
unity of virtues
Knowledge (Plato)
- true lovers of knowledge:
lovers of sights & sounds = love only sight & sound of beautiful things; don’t love nature
of beauty itself
most only appreciate & understand instances of beautiful things, but not nature of beauty
itself = lover of opinion
those no knowledge/opinion of either beauty itself or instances of beautiful things =
ignorance
only philosophers can apprehend nature of beauty = lovers of knowledge & beauty
best rulers shouldn’t rule from ignorance/opinion, but according to reason & full
knowledge
Koinonia (association)
- every state is an association
Kreitton (advantage of the stronger)
- Thrasymachus’s definition of justice Logos (power of speech)
- is what separates humans from animals
- serves to indicate useful /harmful, just/unjust
- law has to be inherently rational :. logos = true author of law, not humans
Middle Constitution (or mixed constitution)
Monarchy/Kingship
Myth of the metals
- contends that all citizens of the city were born out of the earth
each citizen has certain metal mixed in his soul
most fit to rule = gold
auxiliaries = silver
producers = bronze/iron.
- city must never be ruled by someone whose soul is mixed w/ wrong metal
according to oracle, city will be ruined if that happens
- persuades ppl to be patriotic.
- they have reason to swear loyalty to their particular plot of ground and their fellow citizens
plot of ground = mother
fellow citizens = brothers & sisters.
Natural vs. legal slavery
Nicomachean Ethics
politics regarded a subset of ethics: branch of philosophy concerned w/ human values & moral
conduct
Aristotle: ethics = ‘philosophy of human nature’
to understand politics, we must understanding what humans value & why we value them
Noble falsehood
Nomos (law/convention) - rule of law, not rule of man
- theory of law: if law should be supreme, then law is:
reason w/out desire
law has to be inherently rational
logos = true author of law, not humans
Oligarchy (rule of the wealthy few)
- constitution based on a property assessment; rich rule, poor has no share
- private accumulation of private wealth & property, encourages selfish behaviour
$making > virture & necessity for survival
disregard law
- haves & havenots
not 1 city but 2 = 1 of poor & 1 of rich
creates greatest of all evils – poverty & social exclusion
- soul of oligarchic man dominated by appetitive part of soul, but still keeps lesser desires in
check
- Oligarchy → Democracy
democracy emerges from insatiable desire to become as rich as possible
when poor victorious kill opponents, expelling others & giving rest equal share in ruling
under constitution & assigning positions of rule by lot
Oligoi (the few)
PhilosopherKing
- philosophers are the best (aristoi) :. aristocracy = rule as kings
philosophy is what makes one best suited to rule
kallipolis only exist when philosophers rule as kings
leading genuinely & adequately philosophize, until political power & philosophy entirely
coincide - Problems with theory:
true philosophers =rare
no true philosophers want to rule (but is precisely why are best suited to rule) :. must
forced to rule, leaser eager = best rulers
bad reputation of vicious/useless, not honored but slandered in cities
- must be Guardians:
w/out falsehood
highminded
fastlearner
good memory
measured & graceful
- must not be:
$making / auxiliary classes
lovers of sights & sounds = love only sight & sound of beautiful things; don’t love nature
of beauty itself
most only appreciate & understand instances of beautiful things, but not nature of beauty
itself = lover of opinion
those no knowledge/opinion of either beauty itself or instances of beautiful things =
ignorance
only philosophers can apprehend nature of beauty = lovers of knowledge & beauty
best rulers shouldn’t rule from ignorance/opinion, but according to reason & full
knowledge
- Allegory of the cave = illustration of what it is like to be a philosopher
prisoners (us) only see shadows = world of relative ignorance, but not reality which
produced the shadows
person liberated from the chains restraining them (philosopher) can see the world as it
truly is should rule b/c knows good & beautiful things, but source/Form of goodness &
beauty
only philosophers know what is true goodness & justice for the city = qualified to rule Philosophia (love of learning & wisdom)
- like dog
who loves what it knows, hates what it doesn’t
separates knowledge from ignorance
philosopher = lover of knowledge, avoids ignorance
Phronesis (practical wisdom)
- politics = craft/art of producing good laws practiced by politicians
- political skill requires phronesis = ability to calculate & deliberate well abt actions that can
best bring abt eudaimonia for men
those good at managing households/states
Phusis (nature)
- nature (beyond human control) is different from convention (w/in human control) → natural
world ≠ human world
- polis:
natural: b/c customs never change :. part of nature, if anyone challenge authority of
custom = punish
(So
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