PS102 FINAL EXAM NOTES
CHAPTER 6: Learning
Learning refers to a relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to
experience
• one of the most fundamental aspects of psychology
• acquisition of knowledge and skills
• shapes personal habits and preferences, personality traits, emotional responses and
much of our behaviour
o Acquisition: the initial stage of learning something
o Extinction: the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response
tendency
o Stimulus Generalization: an organism’s responding to stimuli other than the original
stimulus used in conditioning
o Stimulus Discrimination: an organism’s response to stimuli that are similar to the
original stimulus used in conditioning
Conditioning learning associations between events that occur in an organism’s environment.
There are three main types of conditioning, they are...
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING...a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity
to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
stimuli precede the response
Pavlovian Conditioning established by Ivan Pavlov ▯ determine classical conditioning used
dogs in his experiment:
o tone (CS or neutral stimulus) was given at the presence of meat powder (UCS or
stimulus) ▯ detect salivation
o would eventually salivate in the presence of the tone alone
this demonstrated learned associations, were formed by events in an organism’s environment
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) a stimulus that evokes an unconditional response without
previous conditioning
unconditioned response (UCR) an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs
without previous conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning,
acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response
conditioned response (CR) a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of
previous conditioning
Physic Reflex or Conditioned Reflex most reflexes are relatively automatic or involuntary
Trial consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli psychologists are
concerned for how many trials are required to establish a particular conditioned
bond Emotional Response:
• conditioned fears can be traced back to experiences that involve classical conditioning
• pleasant ▯ smell associations
Physiological Response:
• immune system ▯ lead to immunesuppression (a decrease in the production of
antibodies)
• allergic reactions
• drug tolerance (predrug cues elicit a CCR that attenuates the drug effect) ▯ CCR
strengthens
•
• Acquisition:
depends on stimulus contiguity ▯ stimuli are contiguous if they occur together in the same place
CS+UCS▯ CR
Extinction:
• consistent presentation of conditioned stimulus alone, without the unconditioned
stimulus
• spontaneous recovery the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of
non exposure to the conditioned stimulus
• renewal effect extinction does not appear to lead to unlearning
• CR (alone) until it no longer elicits CR
•
• Stimulus Generalization:
• the more similar new stimuli are to the original CS, the greater the generalization
• graph form: generalization gradients
• CR elicited by new stimulus that resembles original CS
•
• Stimulus Discrimination:
the original CS continue to be paired with the UCS, while similar stimuli not be paired with the
UCS
Higherorder Conditioning a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned
stimulus
• built on the foundation of already established conditioned responses
• classical conditioning does not depend on the presence of genuine, natural UCS
2. OPERANT CONDITIONING
...a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by other consequences
• stimulus events that follow the response ▯ consequences
• B.F Skinner: learning occurs because responses come to be influenced by the outcomes that
follow them
•
• Law of Effect if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the
association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened
• Edward Thorndike
• Instrumental Learning a mechanical process in which successful responses are
gradually “stamped in” by their favourable effects
• Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to
make that response • B.F Skinner
• Organisms repeat those responses that are followed by favourable/rewarding
consequences
•
• Operant Chamber (Skinner box) a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific
response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled
• main response made available is pressing a lever mounted on the side wall
• cumulative recorder creates a graphic record of response and reinforcement as a
function of time
o pen moves according to pattern ▯ response = upward movement
Reinforcement Contingencies the circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead
to the presentation of reinforcers
Acquisition:
• uses shaping (consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a
desired response) ▯ used for animal training
• organism does not, on its own, emit the desired response
• responding gradually increases because of reinforcement, possibly through shaping
• Extinction:
• resistance to extinction occurs when an organism continues to make a response after
delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated
• responding gradually slows and stops after reinforcement is terminated
• Stimulus Generalization:
• discriminative stimuli cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the
probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response
• responding to a new stimulus as if it were the original
• Stimulus Discrimination:
responding does not increase in the lack of presence of new stimulus that resembles the original
discrimination stimulus
Reinforcement:
Primary Reinforcers events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs
Secondary Reinforcers (conditioned) events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being
associated with primary reinforcers
Schedule of Reinforcement determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the
presentation of a reinforcer
Continuous reinforcement occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforces
Intermittent Reinforcement (partial) occurs when a designated response is reinforced only
some of the time
organisms continue responding longer after removal of reinforcers when a response has been
reinforced only some of the time
4 Types of Intermittent Schedules:
Ratio Schedules: require the organism to make the designated response a certain number of times
to gain each reinforcer (more rapid)
• FixedRatio (FR) schedule reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses
• VariableRatio (VR) schedule reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced
responses Interval Schedules: require a time period to pass between the presentation of reinforcers
• FixedInterval (FI) schedule reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed
time interval has elapsed
• VariableInterval (VI) schedule reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time
interval has elapsed
Positive Reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the
presentation of a rewarding stimulus
Negative Reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the
removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus
• removal of an aversive rather than arrival of a pleasant stimulus
• ex. Rush home in the winter to get out of the cold
• Escape Learning an organism acquires a response/behaviour that decreases or ends
some aversive stimulation
• Avoidance Learning an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive
stimulation from occurringo Twoprocess Theory asserting that the avoidance response removes
an internal aversive stimulus, rather than an external aversive stimuluso based on the prediction
have avoidance should gradually extinguish because it is no longer followed by the removal of an
aversive stimulus
•
• Punishment occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that
response
• positive punishment presents aversive stimulus (ex. spanking a child)
• negative punishment removes awarding stimulus (ex. taking away toy)
• weakens response
• used for disciplinary purposes \
3.OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
...occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are
called models
• conditioned indirectly by virtue of observing another’s conditioning
• Albert Bandura: reinforcement influences which of several already acquired responses
one will perform more than it influences the acquisition of new responses
• Response ▯ Rewarding stimulus presented
•
• 4 Key Processes...
• I. Attention
• II. Retention (memory)
• III. Reproduction (conversion: stored mental images ▯ overt behaviour
• IV. Motivation
• Acquisition:
reinforcement affects which responses are actually performed more than which responses are
acquiredYoung children can pick up behaviours from television.
2 MAJOR CHANGES IN THINKING ABOUT CONDITIONING
1. Biological Heritage poses limitations
instinctive drift occurs when an animal’s innate response tendencies interfere with
conditioning processes
neutral stimulus (sauce) + unconditioned stimulus (flu) ▯ UCR (nausea)
natural selection ▯ byproduct of the evolutionary history of mammals o evolution may
have biologically programmed some organisms to learn certain types of associations more easily
than others
Preparedness involves a species specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain
ways and not others
Mechanism have sometimes been modified in the course of evolution as species have
adapted to the specialized demands of their environments
2. Cognitive Processes
• signal relations
• CSUCS ▯ CS is good (a “good” signal allows accurate prediction of the UCS
• Manipulates the predictive value of a conditioned stimulus
• Response is more likely strengthened if the person thinks that the response caused the
outcome
• Contingencies organisms actively try to figure out what leads to what in the world
around them
•
•
• Chapter 7 – Human Memory
•
• Encoding: Getting Information into Memory
• Sometimes the information just doesn’t seem important, so you devote very little or no
attention to it Active encoding is a crucial process in memory
•
• The Role of Attention
• You need to pay attention to information if you intend to remember it
• Attention involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events
• Selective attention is critical to everyday functioning
• Attention is often likened to a filter that screens out most potential stimuli while
allowing a select few to pass through conscious awareness
• Ex. At a party and you’re only paying attention to the conversation you’re having – not
the others around you, you’ve zoned those out, but if you hear someone calling your
name, you will automatically hear it
• It is clear that people have difficultly if they attempt to focus their attention on two or
more inputs simultaneously
• When participants are forced to divide their attention between memory encoding and
some other task, large reductions in memory performance are seen
• Divided attention can have a negative impact on the performance of quite a variety of
tasks, especially when the tasks are complex or unfamiliar
• The human brain can effectively handle only one attentionconsuming task at a time
When people multitask, they are switching their attention back and forth among tasks,
rather than processing them simultaneously
• While much of the information we want to remember is encoded as a result of effortful
processing, some types of information may be acquired more automatically
• In the first type of processing, you are picking up information because you are intentionally attempting to do so, such as when you are listening to your prof
• Other information, such as the frequency of word use is picked up without intending to
do so
• The ability to answer questions based on each type of processing has been found to be a
function of several factors, including circadian patterns and age
•
• Levels of Processing
• Attention is critical to the encoding of memories – not all attention is created equal
• You can attend to things in different ways, focusing on different aspects of the stimulus
input
• How people attend to information are the main factors influencing how much they
remember
• In dealing with verbal information, people engage in three progressively deeper levels of
processing: structural, phonemic, and semantic encoding
• Structural encoding is relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical
structure of the stimulus
• Phonemic encoding emphasizes what a word sounds like
• Semantic encoding emphasizes the meaning of verbal input; it involves thinking about
the objects and actions the words represents
• Levelsofprocessing theory proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer
lasting memory codes
•
• Enriching Encoding
• There are other dimensions to encoding, dimensions that can enrich the encoding
process and thereby
• Improve memory: elaboration, visual imagery, and selfreferent coding
•
• Elaboration
• Elaboration is linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encodingThe
additional associations created by elaboration usually help people to remember
information
•
• Visual Imagery
• The creation of visual images to represent the words to be remembered
• The impact of imagery is quite evident
• Imagery facilitates memory because it provides a second king of memory code, and two
codes are better than one
• Dualcoding theory holds that memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual
codes, since either can lead to recall
• The use of mental imagery can enhance memory in many situations
•
• SelfReferent Encoding
• Making material personally meaningful can enrich encoding
• Selfreferent encoding involves deciding how or whether information is personally
relevant
• Appears to enhance recall by promoting additional elaboration and better organization of
information
• • Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory
• Sensory Memory
• The sensory memory preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time,
usually only a fraction of a second
• Sensory memory allows the sensation of a visual pattern, sound, or touch to linger for a
brief moment after the sensory stimulation is over
• Ex. Visual afterimage when you wave a sparkler in a circle – it looks like a complete
circle
•
• Shortterm Memory
• Shortterm memory (STM) is a limitedcapacity store that can maintain unrehearsed
information for up to about 20 seconds
• Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information
• In using maintenance rehearsal you are simply maintaining the information in
consciousness, while in more elaborative processing you are increasing the probability
that you will retain the information in the future
• Rehearsal keeps recycling the information through your shortterm memory
•
• Durability of Storage
• Without rehearsal, information in shortterm memory is lost in less than 20 seconds
•
• Capacity of Storage
• Shortterm memory is also limited in the number of items it can hold
• People could recall only about seven items in tasks that required them to remember
unfamiliar items
• The limited capacity of STM constrains people’s ability to perform tasks in which they
need to mentally juggle various pieces of information
• It has been known that you can increase capacity of your STM by combining stimuli into
larger, possibly higherorder units, called chunks
• A chunk is a group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unitDepends on how you
chunk it – in a meaningful vs. nonmeaningful way
•
• ShortTerm Memory as “Working Memory”
• Shortterm memory is not limited to phonemic encoding as originally thought and decay
is not the only process responsible for the loss of information from STM
• Working memory is a limited capacity storage system that temporarily maintains and
stores information by providing an interface between perception, memory, and action
• Consists of four components: phonological loop – at work when you use recitation to
temporarily remember something, visuospatial sketchpad – permits people to temporarily
hold and manipulate visual images, central executive system – controls the deployment of
attention, switching the focus of attention, and dividing attention as needed, episodic
buffer a temporary, limitedcapacity store that allows the various components of working
memory to integrate information and that serves as an interface between working and
longterm memory
• Working memory capacity (WMC) refers to one’s ability to hold and manipulate
information in conscious attention
• WMC is a stable trait that appears to be influenced to a considerable degree by heredity
• Variations in WMC also appear to influence musical ability, as reading music while playing an instrument taxes working memory capacity
• LongTerm Memory
• Longterm memory (LTM) is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information
over lengthy periods of time
• LTM can store information indefinitely
• Stored there permanently
• Forgetting occurs only because people sometimes cannot retrieve needed information
from LTM
• Flashbulb memories are unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous
events
• Flashbulb memories represent an instance of permanent storage
• Although flashbulb memories tend to be strong, vivid, and detailed, studies suggest that
they are neither as accurate nor as special as once believed
•
• How is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory?
• Our mental representations probably take a variety of forms, depending on the nature of
the material that needs to be tucked away in memory
•
• Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies
• Clustering – the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups
• Conceptual hierarchy – a multilevel classification system based on common properties
among items
•
• Schemas
• A schema is an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event
abstracted from previous experience with the object or eventPeople are more likely to
remember things that are consistent with their schemes than things that are not
• People sometimes exhibit better recall of things that violate their schemabased
expectationsNot only do we have schemas about physical settings, but we also have
schemas about specific people, types of people and social events
•
• Semantic Networks
• A semantic network consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by
pathways that link related conceptsSemantic networks have proven useful in explaining
why thinking about one work can make a closely related word easier to remember
•
• Connectionist Networks and Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Models
• Connectionist models of memory take their inspiration from how neural networks appear
to handle information
• The human brain appears to depend extensively on parallel distributed processing –
simultaneous processing of the same information that is spread across networks of
neurons
• Connectionist or parallel distributed processing (PDP) models assume that cognitive
processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational
networks that resemble neural networks
• A PDP system consists of a large network of interconnected computing units, or nodes,
that operate much like neurons
• Like an individual neuron, a specific node’s level of activation reflects the weighted
balance of excitatory and inhibitory inputs from many other units • PDP models asset that specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation
in these networks
•
• Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory
•
• Using Cues to Aid Retrieval
• The tipofthetongue phenomenon is the temporary inability to remember something
you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach
• Most people experience this once a week
• Memories can often be jogged with retrieval cues stimuli that help gain access to
memories
•
• Reinstating the Context of an Event
• Your memory for information would be better when the conditions during encoding and
retrieval were similar
• Context cues often facilitate the retrieval of information
• The technique of reinstating the context of an event has been used effectively in legal
investigates to enhance eyewitness recall
• If you encoded information while intoxicated, your recall should be facilitated by
attempting o retrieve the information while in a similar state
•
• Reconstructing Memories and the Misinformation Effect
• To some extent, our memories are sketchy reconstructions of the past that may be
distorted and may include details that did not actually occur
• Subjects tend to leave out the boring details
• The memory for events was more like a reconstruction
• Part of what people recall about an event is the details of that particular event and part is
a reconstruction o the event based on their schemas
• The misinformation effect occurs when participants’ recall of an event they witnessed
is altered by introducing misleading postevent information
•
• Source Monitoring and Reality Monitoring
• Reality monitoring refers to the process of deciding whether memories are based on
external sources (ones perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts
and imaginations)
• People engage in reality monitoring when they reflect on whether something actually
happened or they only thought about it happening
• Source monitoring involves making attributions about the origins of memoriesSource
monitoring is a crucial facet of memory retrieval that contributes to many of the mistakes
people make in reconstructing their experiences
• A sourcemonitoring error occurs when a memory derived from one source is
misattributed to another source
• Destination memory involves recalling to whom one has told what
• Destination memory is more fragile because when transmitting information people are
selffocused on their message, leaving less attention capacity to devote to encoding
whom one is talking with
• Forgetting: When Memory Lapses
• Forgetting can reduce competition among memories that can cause confusionForgetting may be adaptive in the long runForgetting can be caused by defects in encoding, storage,
retrieval, or some combination of these processes
• How Quickly we Forget: Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
• Herman Ebbinghaus
• A forgetting curve graphs retention and forgetting over time
• The most forgetting occurs very rapidly after learning something
• When subjects memorize more meaningful material, forgetting curves aren’t nearly as
steep
•
• Measures of Forgetting
• Retention refers to the proportion of material retained (remembered)
• The three principal methods used to measure forgetting are recall, recognition, and
relearning
• A recall measure of retention requires subjects to reproduce information on their own
without any cues
• A recognition measure of retention requires subjects to select previously learned
information from an array of options
• – Ex. Multiple choice testing
• A relearning measure of retention requires a subject to memorize information a second
time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having
learned it before
•
• Why we Forget
• Factors that may affect encoding, storage, and retrieval processes
•
• Ineffective Coding
• Appearing to have forgotten
• People usually assume that they know what a penny looks like, but most have actually
filed to encode this information
• Due to lack of attention
•
• Decay
• Decay theory proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time
• The mere passage of time produces forgetting
• Forgetting depends not on the amount of time that has passed since learning but on the
amount, complexity, and type of information that subjects have had to assimilate during
the retention interval
•
• Interference
• Interference theory proposes that people forget information because of competition
from other material
• Decreasing the similarity should reduce interference and cause less forgetting
• Retroactive interference occurs when new information impairs the retention of
previously learned information
• Retroactive interference occurs between the original learning and the retest on that
learning, during the retention interval
• Proactive interference occurs when previously learning information interferes with the
retention of new information • Proactive interference is rooted in learning that comes before exposure to the test
material
•
•
• Retrieval Failure
• Retrieval failures may be more likely when a mismatch occurs between retrieval cues
and the encoding of the information you’re searching for
• The encoding specificity principle states that the value of a retrieval cue depends on
how well it corresponds to the memory code
• Transferappropriate processing occurs when the initial processing of information is
similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention
• Semantic processing yielded higher retention when the testing emphasizes semantic
actors, while phonemic processing yielded higher retention when the testing emphasized
phonemic factors
• Retrieval failures are more likely when there is a poor fit between the processing done
during encoding and the processing invoked by the measure of retention
•
• Motivated Forgetting
• The tendency to forget things one doesn’t want to think about it called motivated
forgetting
• Repression refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious
•
• The Repressed Memories Controversy
• Support for Recovered Memories
• Many psychologists accept recovered memories of abuse at face valueThere is ample
evidence that it is common for people to bury traumatic incidents in their unconscious
•
• Skepticism Regarding Recovered Memories
• Psychologists who doubt the authenticity of repressed memories support their analysis
by pointing to discredited cases of recovered memories
• Those who question the accuracy of repressed memories also point to findings on the
misinformation effect, research on sourcemonitoring errors, and other studies that
demonstrate the relative ease of creating “memories” of events that never happened
• Many repressed memories of abuse have been recovered under the influence of hypnosis
• Many repressed memories of abuse have been recovered through therapists’ dream
interpretations
• Some recovered memories have described incidents of abuse that occurred before the
victim reached age three and even when the victim was still in the womb
•
• Rebuttals to the Skeptics
• Even if one accepts the assertion that therapists can create false memories of abuse in
their patients, some critics have noted that there is virtually no direct evidence on how
often that occurs and no empirical basis for the claim that there has been an epidemic of
such cases
•
• Conclusions
• Therapists can unintentionally create false memories in their patients and a significant
portion of recovered memories of abuse are the product of suggestionSome cases of
recovered memories are authenticThe matter of recovered memories needs to be addressed with great caution
•
• Seven Sins of Memory: How Memory Goes Wrong
• Memory is key to understanding who we are and what we doMemory doesn’t fail us
only because we simply forget; sometimes our memories for events are distorted and
biasedThe memory sins:
• Transience – the simple weakening of a memory over time
• Absentmindedness – memory failure that is often due to a failure to pay attention
because we are perhaps preoccupied with other things
• Blocking – a temporary problem that occurs when we fail to retrieve an item of
information such as someone’s name when we meet them
• Misattribution – we assign a memory to the wrong source – Ex. Psych or business prof
delayed the exam, which one did?
• Suggestibility – our memory is distorted, because of, for example, misleading questions
• Bias – inaccuracy due to the effect of our current knowledge on our reconstruction of the
past
• Persistence – involves unwanted memories or recollections that you cannot forget –
memories that haunt you
•
• In Search of the Memory Trace: The Physiology of Memory
• Investigators continue to explore a variety of leads about the physiological bases for
memory
•
• The Neural Circuitry of Memory
• Memory formation results in alterations in synaptic transmission at specific sites
Durable changes in synaptic transmission may be the neural building blocks of more
complex memories as well
• Specific memories may depend on localized neural circuits in the brain
• Memories may create unique, reusable pathways in the brain along which signals flow
• Longterm potentiation (LTP) is a longlasting increase in neural excitability at
synapses along a specific neural pathway
• LTP appears to involve changes in both presynaptic (sending) and postsynaptic
(receiving) neurons in neural circuits in the hippocampus
• The process of neurogenesis – the formation of new neurons – ma contribute to the
sculpting of neural circuits that underlie memory
•
• The Anatomy of Memory
• Retrograde amnesia involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the
onset of amnesia
• Anterograde amnesia involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the
onset of amnesia
• Consolidation is a hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information
into durable memory codes stored in long term memory
• Memories are consolidated in the hippocampal region and then stored in diverse widely
distributed areas of the cortex
• A variety of biochemical processes, neural circuits, and anatomical structures have been
implicated as playing a role in memory
• • Systems and Types of Memory
• Implicit vs. Explicit Memory
• Implicit memory is apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require
intentional remembering
• Explicit memory involves intentional recollection of previous experiences
• Explicit memory is conscious, is accessed directly, and can best be assessed with recall
or recognition measures of retention
• Implicit memory is unconscious, must be accessed indirectly, and can best be assessed
with variations on relearning measures of retention
• Implicit memory is largely unaffected by amnesia, age, and the administration of drugs,
etc.
•
• Declarative vs. Procedural Memory
• The declarative memory system handles factual information – contains recollection of
words, definitions, names, dates, faces, events, concepts, and ideas
• The nondeclarative or procedural memory system houses memory for actions, skills,
operations, and conditioned responses
• – Ex. How to ride a bike
• The two systems seem to operate somewhat differently
• Declarative memory appears to be handled by the medial temporal lobe memory system
and the far flung areas of the cortex with which it communicates
•
• Semantic vs. Episodic Memory
• The episodic memory system is made up of chronological, or temporally dated,
recollections of personal experiences
• Episodic memory is a record of things you’ve done, seen, and heard
• The semantic memory system contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time
when the information was learned
• Semantic memory contains information such as Christmas is December 25, dogs have 4
legs – information stored like this is undated – don’t remember when you learned it
• Episodic memory is like an autobiography, while semantic memory is like an
encyclopedia
•
• Prospective vs. Retrospective Memory
• Prospective memory involves remembering to perform actions in the future – Ex.
Remembering to call someone later
• Retrospective memory involves remembering events from the past or previously
learned information
• – Ex. Trying to remember who won the Stanley cup last year
• Individuals who appear to be deficient in prospective memory are often characterized as
“absent minded”
Chapter 8 – Language & Thought
Language: Turning Thoughts into Words
What is Language?
A language consists of symbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those symbols,
that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages
Language is symbolic – people use spoken sounds and written words to represent objects,
actions, events and ideas
Language is semantic, or meaningful
Language is generative – a limited number of symbols can be combined I an infinite variety of
ways to generate an endless array of novel messages
Language is structured – although people can generate an infinite variety of sentences, these
sentences must be structured in a limited number of ways
The Structure of Language
Phonemes
Phonemes are the smallest speech unit in a language that can be distinguished perceptually How
certain letters soundEnglish language is composed of about 40 phonemes
Morphemes and Semantics
Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a languageApproximately 50 000 English
morphemesEx. Ly, un, deSemantics is the area of language concerned with understanding the
meaning of words and word combinations
Syntax
Syntax is a system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences
Using Words
The first year of life is critical in the child’s acquisition of language
At around 10 to 13 months of age, most children begin to utter sounds that correspond to words
– most infant’s first words are similar in phonetic form and meaning – Ex. Papa, mama, dada
Fast mapping is the process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after
only one exposure
An overextension occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects
or actions than it is meant to
Underextensions occur when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of
objects or actions than it is meant to
Combining Words
Children typically begin to combine words into sentences near the end of their second year
Telegraphic speech consists mainly of content words; articles prepositions, and other less critical
words are omitted – Ex. “Give doll” as opposed to “Please give me the doll”
Overregularizations occur when grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases
where they do not apply – Ex. “I hitted the ball”
Refining Language Skills
Youngsters make their largest strides in language development in their first four to five years
However, they continue to refine their language skills during their schoolage years
Metalinguistic awareness – the ability to reflect on the use of language Learning More than One Language: Bilingualism
Bilingualism is the acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary,
and grammatical rules
Does Learning Two Languages in Childhood Slow Down Language Development?
Some studies have found that bilingual children have smaller vocabularies in each of their
languages than monolingual children have in their one language – but when their two overlapping
vocabularies are added, their total vocabulary I similar or slightly superior to that of children
learning a single language
There was little evidence of language disadvantage
The bilingual children followed the normal pacing of language milestones, except in this case it
was accomplished in both languages
Does Bilingualism Affect Cognitive Processes and Skills?
On some types of tasks, bilinguals may have a slight disadvantage in terms of raw language
processing speed
Bilingual children should develop control over executive processes earlier than monolingual
children
As adults, the enhanced executive control characteristic of bilinguals should afford them
advantages in cognitive tasks implicating executive processing
Bilingualism is associated with higher levels of controlled processing on tasks that require more
attention
Some of the executive processes implied in these differences between bilingual and monolingual
children are those involving selective attention, attentional inhibition to distracting/misleading
information, and switching among competing alternatives
Bilingual children don’t have an advantage on all tasks; they show an advantage on some aspects
of metalinguistic awareness but not for phonemic awareness
What Factors Influence the Acquisition of a Second Language?
Individuals learn their native language first and then learn a second language later
Language learning unfolds more effectively when initiated prior to age seven, and younger and
continues to be better up through age 15
Acculturation – the degree to which a person is socially and psychologically integrated into a
new culture
Greater acculturation facilitates more rapid acquisition of the
A learner’s motivation and attitude toward the other group that uses language to be learned also
influences it
A positive attitude also helps
Can Animals Develop Language?
Scientists have taught some languagelike skills to a number of species
Their greatest success has some with the chimpanzee
Researchers tries training chimps to use a nonoral human language: American Sign Language
(ASL)
Chimps do have an analogous area in the left hemisphere
– Broca’s area – crucial to language processingThe ability to use language – in a very basic,
primitive way – may not be entirely unique to humans, as has been widely assumed
There is no comparison between human linguistic abilities and those of apes or other animals
Language in an Evolutionary Context
All human societies depend on complex languages that are just as complicated as those used in modern societies
Human’s special talent for language is a speciesspecific trait that is the product of natural
selection
Language is a valuable means of communication that has enormous adaptive value
Language evolved as a device to build and maintain social coalitions in increasingly larger
groups
Although the adaptive value of language seems obvious, some scholars take issue with the
assertion that human language is the product of evolution
Theories of Language Acquisition
Behaviourist Theories
Children learn language the same way they learn everything else: through imitation,
reinforcement, and other established principles of conditioning
Skinner states, vocalizations that are not reinforced gradually decline in frequency. The
remaining vocalizations are shaped with reinforcers until they are correct
Children learn how to construct sentences by imitating the sentences of adults and older children
Nativist Theories
There are an infinite number of sentences in a language – it is therefore unreasonable to expect
that children learn language by imitation
Humans have an inborn or “native” propensity to develop language
Proposes that humans are equipped with a language acquisition device(LAD) – an innate
mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language
Interactionist Theories
LAD concept is terribly vague
Biology and experience both make important contributions to the development of language
Cognitive theories assert that language development is simply an important aspect of more
general cognitive development – which depends on both maturation and experience
Social communication theories emphasize the functional value of interpersonal communication
and the social context in which language evolves
Emergentist theories argue that the neural circuits supporting language are not prewired but
emerge gradually in response to language learning experiences
Believe that the human organism is biologically well equipped for learning language
Culture, Language, and Thought
Linguistic relatively – the hypothesis that one’s language determines the nature of one’s thought
Different languages lead people to view the world differently
Problem Solving: In Search of Solutions
Types of Problems
Problem solving refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is
not readily available
Problems are organized into 3 classes:
1. Problems of inducing structure require people to discover the relationships among numbers,
words, symbols or ideas – Ex. Series completion problems, analogy problems
2. Problems of arrangement require people to arrange the parts of a problem in a way that
satisfied some criterion – Ex. String problem, anagrams
Insight – the sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based
primarily on trial and error 3. Problems of transformation require people to carry out a sequence of transformations in order
to reach a specific goal – Ex. The hobbits and orbs problem and the water jar problem
Barriers to Effective Problem Solving
Irrelevant Information
Irrelevant information leads people astrayPeople often incorrectly assume that all of the
numerical information in a problem is necessary to solve itEffective problem solving requires
that you attempt to figure out what information is relevant and what is irrelevant before
proceeding
Functional Fixedness
Functional fixedness – the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use
Ex. People see the screwdriver for its use but they have a hard time to see it as a weight
Mental Set
A mental set exists when people persist in using problemsolving strategies that have worked in
the past
Unnecessary Constraints
Effective problem solving requires specifying all the constraints governing a problem without
assuming any constrains that don’t exist
People do not think to go outside the boundary – Ex. The Ninedot problem
Approaches to Problem Solving
The problem space refers to the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem
solver
Using Algorithms and Heuristics
Trial and error involves trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one
works
An algorithm is a methodical, stepbystep procedure for trying all possible alternatives in
searching for a solution to a problem
If an algorithm is available for a problem, it guarantees that one can eventually find a solution
Algorithms do not exist for many problems
A heuristic is a guiding principle or “rule of thumb” used in problem solving or making
decisionsA heuristic allows you to discard some alternatives while pursuing selected alternatives
that appear more likely to lead to a solution
Forming Subgoals
Immediate steps toward a solution
When you reach a subgoal, you’ve solved part of the problem
Working Backward
If you’re working on a problem that has a wellspecified end point, you may find the solution
more readily if you begin at the end and work backward
Searching for Analogies
If you can spot an analogy between problems, you may be able to use the solution to a previous
problem to solve a current one
People often are unable to recognize that two problems are similar and that an analogy might
lead to a solution
– One reason or this is that people often focus on surface features of problems rather than their
underlying structure
Changing the Representation of the Problem Many problems can be represented in a variety of ways, such as verbally, mathematically, or
spatially
You might represent a problem with a list, a table, an equation, a graph, a matric of facts or
numbers, a tree diagram, or a sequential flow chart
When you fail to make progress with your initial representation, changing your representation is
often a good strategy
Taking a Break: Incubation
An incubation effect occurs when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after
a period of not consciously thinking about the problem
Culture, Cognitive Style, & Problem Solving
Researchers have found cultural differences in the cognitive style that people exhibit in
processing information and solving problems
Field dependenceindependence refers to individuals’ tendency to rely primarily on external
versus internal frames of reference when orienting themselves in space
People who are field dependent rely on external frames of reference and tend to accept the
physical environment as a given instead of trying to analyze or restructure itPeople who are field
independent rely on internal frames of reference and tend to analyze and try to restructure the
physical environment rather than accepting it as is
Field dependenceindependence is related to diverse aspects of cognitive, emotional, and social
functioning
People from East Asian cultures display a holistic cognitive style that focuses on context an
relationships among elements in a field
People from Western cultures exhibit an analytic cognitive style that focuses on objects and their
properties rather than context
People from Eastern cultures tend to be more fielddependent than their Western counterparts
Decision Making: Choices and Chances
Decisionmaking involves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them
Most people try to be systematic and rational in their decisionmaking
Making Choices about Preferences: Basic Strategies
Many decisions involve choices about preferences, which can be made using a variety of
strategies
When consumers have too many choices (for a specific product), they are more likely to leave a
store empty handedWhen there are many choices available, people are more likely to struggle
deciding which is the best option and so they defer their decision
With an additive strategy you list the attributes that influence your decision
To make an additive strategy more useful, you can weight attributes differently, based on their
importance
People also make choices by gradually eliminating less attractive alternatives – called
elimination by aspects
Making Choices about Preferences: Quirks and Complexities
Emotions influences decision making
Another reason these evaluation tend to be inconsistent is that comparative evaluations of
options tend to yield different results than separate evaluations
If they can avoid it, people prefer to not have to grapple with uncertainty
Judgments about the quality of various alternatives, such as consumer products, can be swayed by extraneous factors such as brand familiarly and price
Taking Chances: Factors Weighed in Risky Decisions
Risky decision making involves making choices under conditions of uncertaintyUncertainty
exists when people don`t know what will happen
The expected value is the average amount of money you could expect to win or lose each time =
win – lose
People frequently behave in ways that are inconsistent with expected value
To explain decisions that violate expected value, some theories replace the objective value of an
outcome with subjective utility – represents what an outcome is personally worth to an individual
Heuristics in Judging Probabilities
The availability heuristic involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with
which relative instances come to mind
The representativeness heuristic involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how
similar it is to the typical prototype of that event
The Tendency to Ignore Base Rates
Ex. Assuming someone is a librarian and not a salesman because they are shy and quiet –
because you tend to ignore the fact that salesmen out rate librarians 75 to 1
The Conjunction Fallacy
The conjunction fallacy occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events
happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone
Behavioral Economics
Behavioral economics is a field of study that examines the effects of humans’ actual (not
idealized) decisionmaking processes on economic decisions
People don’t always live up to these goals of being systematic and rational
Theory of bounded rationality asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision
making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in “irrational”
decisions that are less than optimal
Framing refers to how decision issues are posed or how choices are structured
Evolutionary Analyses of Flaws in Human Decision Making
Human decision making strategies are riddled with errors and biases that yield surprisingly
irrational results
Humans only seem irrational because cognitive psychologists have been asking the wrong
questions and formulating problems in the wrong ways – ways that have nothing to do with the
adaptive problems that the human mind has evolved to solve
Human decision making and problem solving strategies have been tailored to handle realworld
adaptive problems
Fast and Frugal Heuristics
Organisms have to make fast decisions under demanding circumstances with limited information
In most instances, organisms do not have the time, resources, or cognitive capacities to gather all
of the relevant information, consider all of the possible options, calculate all the probabilities of
risks, and then make the statistically optimal decision Instead, they use quickanddirty heuristics that are less than perfect but that work well enough
most of the time to be adaptive in the real world
Chapter 9: Thinking and Intelligence
Thought: Using What We KnowSome cognitive psychologists see the mind as an information
processor
– The brain does not passively record info, but actively alters and organizes it. When we take
action, we physically manipulate the environment; when we think, we mentally manipulate
internal representations of objects, activities and situations
The Elements of Cognition
Concept: a mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions or qualities
having common properties
• Concepts simplify and summarize info about the world so that it is manageable and we can
make decisions quickly & efficiently
Basic concepts: concepts that have a moderate number of instances and that are easier to acquire
than those having few or many instances (e.g. apple vs. fruit – more basic vs. more abstract)
Prototype: an especially representative example of a concept – when we need to decide whether
something belongs to a concept, we are likely to compare it to a prototype
Benjamin Lee Whorf’s theory: words used to express concepts may influence or shape how we
think about them; language moulds cognition and perception; grammar and the tenses in which
we speak affects how we think about the world ▯ e.g. feminine word in French is described as
elegant, soft but the same word in Spanish is describe as strong, sturdy
Proposition: a unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a unitary idea –
represents their relation to each other
Cognitive schema: an integrated mental network of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations
concerning a particular topic or aspect of the world (e.g. gender schemas)
Mental images: a mental representation that mirrors or resembles the thing it represents; mental
images occur in many and perhaps all sensory modalities; they are the construction of cognitive
schemas
• Can also happen with hearing a song or slogan [in your mind’s ear]
How Conscious is thought?
• solving a problem, drawing up plans, making calculated decisions: done consciously
SUBCONSCIOUS THINKING
Subconscious processes: mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness but
accessible to consciousness when necessary
• • Allow us to handle more info and perform more complex tasks than if we depended
entirely on conscious & deliberate thought (e.g. driving, decoding letters to make a word becomes
automatic)
• • Multitasking is usually inefficient: toggling between 2+ tasks increases the time
required to complete them, stress increases, errors increase, reaction times lengthen and memory
suffers
• • When you do two things at once, brain activity devoted to each task decreases – while
switching between tasks, prefrontal cortex [which prioritizes and enables higherorder thinking]
becomes relatively inactive
• NONCONSCIOUS THINKING
Nonconscious processes: mental processes occurring outside of and not available to conscious awareness
– remains outside of consciousness (e.g. seeing a puzzle, not knowing how to solve it and hours
later you have a revelation on how to do it)
• Insight & intuition involve several stages of mental processing
Clues in the problem automatically activate certain memories or knowledge; begin to
see a pattern, although you cannot yet say what it is
Eventually your thinking becomes conscious and you become aware of a probable
solution ▯ feels like a sudden revelation pops into your mind from nowhere
Implicit learning: learning that occurs when you acquire knowledge about something without
being aware of how you did so and without being able to state exactly what it is you have learned
MINDLESSNESS
• • Mental inflexibility, inertia and obliviousness to the present context (e.g. acting,
speaking, and making decisions out of habit without stopping to analyze what we are doing and
why)
• • Keeps us from recognizing when a change in a situation requires a change in behaviour
• • Jerome Kagan argued that fully conscious awareness is needed only when we must
make a deliberate choice, when events happen that cannot be handld automatically and when
unexpected moods and feelings arise
•
• Reasoning Rationally
• Reasoning: the drawing of conclusions or inferences from observations, facts or assumptions; a
purposeful mental activity that involves operating on information in order to reach conclusions
•
• Formal Reasoning: Algorithms and Logic
• Formal reasoning problems: the info needed for drawing a conclusion is specified clearly, and
there is a single right answer
• Algorithm: a problemsolving strategy guaranteed to produce a solution even if the user does not
know how it works
• Deductive reasoning: a form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from certain
premises; if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true
• • Premise true + premise true = conclusion must be true
• • I have no work Saturday + today is Saturday = I have no work today
• Inductive reasoning: a form of reasoning in which the premises provide support for a
conclusion, but it is still possible for the conclusion to be false
• • Premise true + premise true + possibility of discrepant info = conclusion probable true
• • People often think it is generalizing from specific observations in past experience, but
premises can also be general, and can also have specific conclusions
•
• Informal Reasoning: Heuristics and Dialectal Thinking
• Heuristic: a rule of thumb that suggests a course of action or guides problemsolving but does
not guarantee an optimal solution
• Used when someone is faced with incomplete information on which to base a decision and may
therefore need to resort to rules of thumb that have been proven effective in the past
Dialectal reasoning: a process in which opposing facts or ideas are weighed and compared, with
a view to determining the best solution or resolving differences
• What a jury has to do to arrive at a verdict ▯ consider arguments for and against the defendant’s
guilt, point and counterpoint Reflective Judgment AKA Critical Thinking
• 7 cognitive stages on the road to reflective judgment – at each stage, people make different
assumptions about how things are known and use different ways of justifying or defending their
beliefs:
2 Prereflective stages: tend to assume that a correct answer always exists and that it can be
obtained directly trough the senses “I know what I’ve seen” or through authorities “They said so
on the news” – people do not distinguish between knowledge and belief or between belief or
evidence & see no reason to justify a belief
3 Quasireflective stages: people recognize that some things cannot be known with absolute
certainty and they realize that judgments should be supported by reasons, yet they pay attention
only to evidence that fits what they already believe – they will defend a position saying “We all
have a right to our own opinion”
2 Reflective stages: people at the reflective stages are willing to consider evidence from a variety
or sources and to reason dialectically
• • A person’s reasoning can vary across two or three adjacent stages depending on the
problem or issue
• • Gradual development of thinking skills amount uni students represents an abandonment
of “ignorant certainty” in favour or “intelligent confusion”.
•
• Barriers to Reasoning Rationally
• Exaggerating the Improbable (and Minimizing the Probable)
• Inclination to exaggerate the probability of rare events (e.g. lotteries & disaster
insurance) but to not be alarmed by serious future events such as global warming
Affect heuristic: the tendency to consult one’s emotions (affect) instead of estimating
probabilities objectively
• • Emotions can often help us make decisions by narrowing our options or allowing us to
act quickly in times of danger but they can also mislead us by preventing us from accurately
assessing risk
• • E.g. mad cow diseases▯ makes us act emotionally to the name, whereas the scientific
name makes us think more objectively
• Availability heuristic: the tendency to judge the probability of a type of event by how easy it is
to think of examples or instances
• • E.g. tornadoes kill people, but a fraction of the number that asthma kills
• • Catastrophes and shocking accidents evoke a strong emotional reaction in us & stand
out in our minds
•
• Avoiding Loss
• In general, people try to avoid or minimize risks and losses when they make decisions
Framing effect: the tendency for people’s choices to be affected by how a choice is presented, or
framed; for example, whether it is worded in terms of potential losses or gains
• • E.g. a condom that has a 95% success rate is seen as more effective than one with a 5%
failure rate
• • People will take a risk if they se it as a way to avoid loss
•
• The Fairness Bias
• • A sense of fairness often takes precedence over rational selfinterest when people make economic choices
• • The desire for fair play sometimes outweighs the desire for economic gain
• The ultimatum Game: your partner gets $20 and must decided how much to share with you –
you either accept the offer and you each get something, or you reject the offer & nobody gets
anything
o People will reject the offer once it gets below 2030%
• MRI scans show that the brain toggles between “yes money is good” a
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