Rousseau: Treatise on the Origin of Inequality 02/14/2013
If you remember Hobbes says “our equality is the cause of infiite trouble it leads to
Competition
Diffidence
Glory
Rousseau agrees with this assessment but disagrees you will find these things in the state of nature instead
Hobbes savages have all passions of the civilized
For Rousseau its as if Hobbes looks around him took an inventory of peoples problems, and them imagines
what they would be like in a lawless world
But these problems are the result of our amour proper or “civilized vanity”
Rousseau’s anticipation of Marx
Concept of “alienation” (Especially of workers)
The objection to “private property” and its creation of a system of “haves/have nots” legitimized by a state
designed to protect the property of the “haves”
The solution, therefore must be to sacrifice the individual will to the collective, which Rousseau famously
calls “the general will”
History is developing process that is intelligible and unfolds in a cycle of reaction and rebellion. Each
system sews the seeds for its own destruction.
Class is the problem must envision a world where there is no class distinction
Rousseau’s four stages of human development
Nascent Man ▯ state of nature man. doesnt want anything he doesn’t need. Asocial because he is content
with what he has and needs. His need for self preservation keeps him docile and from getting into
entanglements
The first revolution ▯ establishment of family life/unit and a sort of property. Claim your family is your own
property
Nascent Society▯ When theses family units group together into a village or some kind of agrarian society.
An innocent collection with barter system (we should have stopped here bc some competition but very
innocent)
The Great Revolution▯ the invention of metallurgy and agriculture. Nature wanted iron to be kept in the
earth. Once you discover iron you can have power over other people and make them your workers. If you
can make bread you have power over those who cant make bread. In position of power to exploit someone.
The nascent inequality▯ power imbalance from the people who can produce. The Nascent Government▯ the reason we left the state of nature or the state of nascent society because for
the people who had things that were worth protecting and in power t was beneficial for them to establish
this government. Foisted upon people by people who have stuff to protect it and keep ppl without stuff
stuffless
Stage #2: Nascent Society
“the isthmus of a middle state”
“this state was the least subject to upheavals and the best for man, and he must have left it only by virtue of
some fatal chance happening that, for the common good, ought never to have happened”
“fatal chance happening” ▯ Metallurgy and agriculture, Iron and Wheat
Step #3: Nascent Inequality
Property brought crimes and horrors the human race could have been spared
Stage #4: Nascent Government
“New fetters to the week and new forces to the rich, irretrievably destroyed natural liberty, established
forever the law of property and the inequality, changed adroit usurpation into an irrevocable right, and for
the profit of a few ambitious men henceforth subject the entire human race to labor, servitude and misery”
Rousseau vs Locke
Locke ▯ property extends to your person without it you will be property of the state
Rousseau▯ defending property subjects the human race to labor, servitude, and misery Martin Luther: On the Crisis of Liberty 02/14/2013
The Crisis of modern thought
Rene Descartes
David Hume
Immanuel Kant
The Crisis of Christian Thought
Martin Luther▯ thinks he is liberating you from the tyranny of the Church. “…Slaves to the vilest men on
earth…”
Blaise Pascal
Ignatius of Loyola
The turn to the subject in Philosophy
“The Subject” tries to make observations on “The Object.” ▯ “the water is blue, the trees are green, etc”
this betokens a naive realism that we think the observations we make actually relate to the world. How do
you know your perceptions of the world actually match. Instead of studying the external world you spin it
around on the mind.
“how do you know the blue you perceive in the water is actually in the water? How do you know it is not just
in your consciousness?”
you see a rainbow bc of the anatomy of your eyes. in a way you created that rainbow. How do you know it
exists objectively in the real world? Does it correspond?
The turn to the Subject in Theology
Everyone is looking for God in the world but maybe he is in the consciousness.
Birth of modern Philosophy and Theology.
Before you can talk about what maybe out there you must analyze how the mind works
Martin Luther
Germany in 1483. Anxiety concerning his identity and purpose
Augustinian monk ▯ drove him to unbearable sense of his own sinfulness
Reading Paul God doesn’t require a total transformation of our impure nature Martin Luther: On the Crisis of Liberty 02/14/2013
“justification by faith alone”
Grace/Faith not works
“The just shall live by faith” ▯ Paul
“It is the gift of God, not of works, lest anyone should boast” Ephesians 2:810
95 Theses
Primary Objection:
The way the Catholic Church, courtesy of Medieval scholastic philosophers (like Aquinas), had appropriated
Aristotle.
In the 41 thesis ofDisputation against Scholastic Theology, Luther says, “the whole of Aristotle’s
Ethics is the worst enemy of grace”
Through the efforts of people like Aquinas, the church had accepted Aristotle’s view that human nature was
capable of “cultivating a certain measure of virtue or righteousness.”
But Luther felt this downplayed our “fallen state: and gave an unjustified role to the moral efforts of human
beings within the economy of salvation.
Holy Sonnet 14 by John Donne
Catholic and then converted to the Anglican Church
“Batter my heart three person God…” makes metaphor about slavery. He compares himself to a usurped
town held captive by an enemy ▯ the devil. He wants god to come in and vanquish this siege but to no end.
Hes a prisoner and he cant get free. Hes married to sin. Married to your enemy. Divorce me take me to you
and imprison me or else ill never be free. I wont be chaste unless you ravish me.
The 95 Thesis
Indulgences
Let them deal with the dark part of their soul rather than false assurances of peace
Luther’s powerful AntiAuthority Legacy: “A Priesthood of all Believers”
If everyone in the church is to be called priests then what distinguishes the priests from the laity. Holy
scripture makes no distinction between them. There’s a practical use for hierarchy and ceremony but no
mention r distinction in scripture.
Radical democratization of theology. Rising tide of democratic sentiment in ecclesiastical authority and
government.
Selfappropriation
Noesis “the act of knowing” Martin Luther: On the Crisis of Liberty 02/14/2013
Noema “the object known”
Can you make explicit (in words and concepts) what is happening in your own consciousness as you
attempt to understand? In other words, what are you doing when you do knowing. How do you know your
perceptions to the external world if its real actually respond to the external world.
Hat makes our knowledge legitimate?
On what grounds does our knowledge stand?
If our knowledge stand on shaky grounds, skepticism reigns. If skepticism reigns, we must give up the
philosophical and scientific pursuit and become accountants.
The Mind Body Problem
Why should th mind have subjectivity. Where do feelings like guilt exists how can they be physical. What is
their ontological status are they identical with the brain.
Catholic church places too much on works not on grace and you play no causal role on your salvation.
Liberate yourself from the assumption that you can do it on your own.
Annoyed at indulgences▯ presumption you can do something to get spiritual salvation. Justification by faith
alone Descartes: Meditations on First Philosophy 02/14/2013
Cartesian Dualism (Substance Dualism0
Res Cogitas “ThinkingThing” The “I”, “The Mind” The Cogito
Res Extensa “Extended Thing” The physical world
Hobbes Objects to Descartes Casper Problem. Never give Causal explanation for how the mind makes the
body move
Descarte thinks the Pinal Gland makes the body move (incorrect) the psycho neural nexus
Robotic hand is a challenge to descarts dualism
Somewhere in between Naïve Realism and NIave Idealsm
Niave Realism The method of Skepticism
Niave idealismCritical. Intelligent Realism
Sollapcism▯ only the existence of your own mind you can be sure of. The way he gets out of this is through
invoking God
Descartes Third Meditation: The Proof of God’s existence
Through more self appropriation, Descartes reasons his ideas are of three types
Fictitious: created by the mind by synthesizing one idea with another (unicorns, griffins)
Adventitious: stamped on the mind by another source in the external world (this desk, coffee, etc)
Innate: inborn, inherent
At this point, ironically, I can only be certain of those ides “I” (Cogito) invent (fictitious) because I’m not even
sure if there is an external world yet
Descartes soon reasons however that adventitious ideas differ from fictitious ideas because I cannot will
they away they seem independent of my will but that is not proof
He then reasons God is clearly not an adventitious idea since there is no God on the Material world to
cause the idea (as in the existence of books walls and bridges the question is god a creation of my own
mind? If not then the idea of God is innate.
The Archimedian Point Descartes: Meditations on First Philosophy 02/14/2013
ARGUMENT 1
1. Something cannot come from nothing (is his an innate idea)
2. The cause of an idea must have come from a formal reality as the idea has objective
reality
3. I have an idea of god this idea has an infinite objective reality
4. If my mind is the cause of this idea, I must have infinite objective reality
5. But since I am not an infinite perfect being, I don’t have enough objective reality to be
the cause. Only an infinite and perfect being could cause such an idea
6. So God a being with infinite objective reality must exist (and be the source of my idea
of God
7. An absolute perfect being is good benevolent being
8. So God is benevolent…
9. A benevolent God would not deceive me and would not permit me to error without me
giving me a way to correct my errors.
Augment 2
1. I exist
2. My existence must have a cause
3. The cause must be either
i. Myself
ii. My always having existed
iii. My parents
iv. Something less perfect than god
v. God
4. Not i. if I had created myself I would have made myself perfect
5. Not ii. This does not solve the problem If I am a dependent being to be continually
sustained by another Descartes: Meditations on First Philosophy 02/14/2013
6. Not iii. This leads to an infinite regress
7. Not iv. The idea of a perfect being that exists in me cannot have originated from a non
perfect being
8. Therefore God exists (and as an idea, he’s as clear and distinct as cogito.)
He has to invoke God to insist he sees the way he thinks they actually are. He says God wouldn’t be
deceptive to him. We can trust our senses and we don’t need these skeptical doubts.
Francis Bacon and the “New Science”
Wait if this is the “new Organon, what was the old one?
The Old Organon is the term used for Aristotle’s logic – the word means tool in Greek
Bacon’s argument is that we need a “method” as opposed to using a pure reason to grasp premises and
then deduce “truths”
You can trust your senses if repeatedly you can do the experiment
He says ”I cannot be called on to abide by the sentence of tribunal which is itself on trial”
His epitaph “Dissolve all compounds” get to the bottom of everything through the scientific method. ▯
Combination of inductive and deductive reasoning
Archemedian point is god. From everything god exists from everything else there is God
God wuldnt deceive you, its your fault not his and it all comes back because of that archemedian point, u
shaped argument. Prove gid and everything comes back in so you don’t have to doubt everything
Niave idealism: we al see that rainbow as it actually is. Perception of the coffee mug as it actually is.
Critical idealism David Hume: Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
02/14/2013
Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
Along with Adam Smith and Thomas Reid, Hume is perhaps the most famous of the “Scottish
Enlightenment”
He is perhaps the most famous empiricist “all knowledge comes from the senses” and ,as such, one of the
most famous skeptics we have good reason to doubt most of what we think we know
He continues to point out his philosophy is important in its negative aspect
What he means is the task of philosophy is to show the limits of our knowledge, not necessarily positing
what we know
Kant will call this “critical philosophy”
Show limitations of reason to leave room for faith
Section 2: “Of the Origin of Ideas”
All perceptions of the mind can be divided into two species based n “force and vivacity”
Impressions (all our more lively immediate perceptions, hearing, seeing, etc., willing, desiring, etc)
Thoughts (ideas)(copies)
All objects of human knowledge are thus
Matters of fact (synthetically true by sense experience (a posteriori) and add to our knowledge)
Some bachelors rock handlebar mustaches
This doesn’t have to be true necessarily
Only thing that can expand your knowledge
Relations of Ideas (analytically true without need for investigation (a priori))
All bachelors are unmarried men
Don’t have to do any research to prove this
Concept of bachelor has concept of unmarried in it
All of our ideas are nothing but copies of our impressions David Hume: Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
02/14/2013
It is impossible for us to think of anything which we have not antecedently felt by either external or internal
senses
Conclusion: when we entertain therefore any suspicion that a philosophical term is employed without any
meaning or idea (as is but too frequent), we need but inquire from what impression is that supposed idea
derived
From what sense impression comes the idea of causation?
Hume says we have no justification to think that causation exists
All we have is custom/habit, the assumption that what has happened in the past will happen again
Hume on Miracles
Conclusions are founded on infallible experience he expects the event with the least degree of assurance
and regards his past as a full proof of future existence of that event
Contest of 2 opposite experience of which one destroys the other. The same principle of experience that tell
us to believe the witnesses. The same principle of experience which gives us a certain degree of assurance
in the testimony of witnesses gives us also a degree o assurance against the fact
facts acquired▯Induction▯laws and theories▯deduction▯ predictions and explanations
religion based on testimony of those who witne
More
Less