Introduction to Sociology
SO 100
Boston University
Professor Holsapple
Course Outline
• The Sociological Approach
• Developing a sociological perspective
• Is Sociology a Science?
• Sociological Questions/Research Methods
• The individual in society
• Structures of Power
• Stratification: Race, Class, Gender
• Global Inequality
• Government, Political Power, and Social Movements
• Socialization
• Social Institutions: Work, Religion, Education, Health
• Urbanization
• Immigration
• Globalization and a Changing World
The Sociological Approach
• The sociological perspective
• to see general social patterns in the behavior of individuals
• To see the strange in the familiar
• To see individuality in social context
• Emile Durkheim: research on the suicide rate
What is Sociology
• The scientific study of human social life, groups, and societies
• Why Study Sociology:
• It teaches us that what we regard as inevitable, good, or true may not be such, and
that the natural in our life is strongly influenced by historical and social forces.
(Giddens, Duneier, Appelbuam)
Sociological Questions
• How do humans coordinate their activities in groups, networks, and organizations?
• Examples:
• 9/11
• Columbine
• What Holds Societies Together?
• Cultivating the Imagination The Sociological Imagination
• C. Wright Mills (1959)
• “To think ourselves away from the familiar routines of our daily lives in order to
look at them anew”
• Allows the sociologist and the individual to distinguish between “personal
troubles” and “public issues”
Development of Sociological Thinking
• Theories and Theoretical Approaches
• How and Why
• A theoretical approach allows one to understand what to look for in beginning a
study and in interpreting the results of research
• Theoretical thinking must respond to general problems posed by the study of
human social life, including issues that are philosophical in nature.
Modern Theoretical Approaches
• Symbolic Interactionism
• Functionalism
• Marxism and Class Conflict
• Feminism and Feminist Theory
• Rational Choice Theory
• Postmodern Theory
Symbolic Interactionism
• Sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals.
• Has a microlevel orientation
• Focuses on patterns of social interact in specific settings.
Structural Functional Paradigm
• Sees society as a complex system whose parts work together
• Asserts that our lives are guided by social structures
• Each social structure has social functions
• The influence of this paradigm has declined in recent years
• Tends to ignore inequalities of class, race, gender
Social Conflict
• Sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change
• Key figures = Marx and W.E.B. Du Bois
• Has developed rapidly in recent years
• Has several weaknesses:
• Ignores social unity
• Like the structuralfunctional paradigm, it envisions society in terms of broad
abstractions
Early Theorists
• Auguste Comte (17981857)
• Emile Durkheim (18581917)
• Karl Marx (18181883)
• Max Weber (18641920)
• Harriet Martineau (18021876) • W.E.B. Du Bois (18681963)
• George Herbert Mead (18631931)
• Talcott Parsons (19021979)
Comte
• French. Invented the word, sociology
• Believe this new field would produce a knowledge of society based on scientific
evidence
• Thought sociology would contribute to the welfare of humanity by using science to
understand the therefore predict and control human behavior
Durkheim
• Goal = establish sociology on a scientific basis.
• Suicide is a vital work because it is the first effective combination of sociological
theory and empiricism to explain a social phenomenon.
Interpretation
Durkheim:
• The main dynamic of modern development is the division of labor as a basis for
social cohesion and organic solidarity.
• Durkheim believed that sociology must study social facts as things, just as science
would analyze the natural world.
Marx
• Contrasts with Durkheim
• Viewpoint founded on what he called the materialist conception of history. “All human
history thus far is the history of class struggles.”
Interpretation, con’t.
Marx:
• The main dynamic of modern development is the expansion of capitalism.
• Marx believed that we must study the divisions within a society that are derived
from the economic inequalities of capitalism.
Weber
• Study of bureaucracy
• Analyzed the distinctiveness of major civilizations
• More cautious in proclaiming sociology a science
• Considered race and gender issues when studying class struggles and differences
Interpretation, con’t.
Weber:
• The main dynamic of modern development is the rationalization of social and
economic life.
• Weber focused on why Western societies developed so differently from other
societies.
Theoretical Approaches
Auguste ComteEmile DurkheimFunctionalism
Karl MarxMarxism
George Herbert MeadSymbolic Interactionism Max Weber Talcott Parsons
• Functionalist
• Heavily Influenced by Durkheim
• Parsons posits that the most empirically significant sociological theory must be
concerned with complex systems, that is, systems composed of many subsystems.
Talcott Parsons, con’t.
• The primary empirical typereference is to society, which is highly complex.
• Empirically, social systems are conceived as open systems, engaged in complicated
processes of interchange with environing systems.
Parsons, con’t.
• L The function of pattern maintenance.
• G The function of goalattainment.
Parsons, con’t.
• A The function of adaptation. I The function of integration.
Parsons, con’t.
• Categories of Social StructureParsons thought of social interaction as a structured
affair. He provides a series of structural categories, given in ascending order as role,
collectivity, norm, and value. These roughly cover the social structure from individual
to social system.
• Role is the essential starting point for individual interaction ( 2 or more people ) which
occurs in such a way as to constitute an interdependent system (as distinguished from
a social system). IN order for interaction to be stable, roles and actions must have
meanings and be governed by understood, shared rules. Rules define goals and the
consequences of ant given move by one player for the situation in which the other
must make his choice. Thus, there is a temporal element to interaction.
Applying the Sociological Perspective
• Microsociology: study of everyday behavior in situations of face to face interaction
• Macrosociology: the analysis of largescale social systems, like the political system or
the economic order
The two are interconnected
Is Sociology a Science?
• Is sociology merely a restatement of the obvious?
Daily Sociology
• Awareness of Cultural Differences
• Assessing the Effects of Policies
• SelfEnlightenment
• The Sociologist’s Role
• The question of the importance of Action Research
• Policy implications
Sociological Questions – asking and answering
• The Research Process
• Understanding Cause and Effect • Research Methods
• Research in the real world
• Methods
• Problems
• Pitfalls
Research Process
• Defining the Research Problem
• Making the ordinary – extraordinary
• “Tearoom Trade. Impersonal sex in public places” by Laud Humphreys (1970)
• Sociological Questions
• Developmental questions
• Empirical questions
• Theoretical questions
The Process
• Defining the Research Problem
• Reviewing the Evidence
• Making the Problem Precise
• Working out a Design
• Carrying out the Research
• Interpreting the Results
• Reporting the Findings
Line of Questioning
• Factual question: What happened
• Comparative Question: Did this happen everywhere
• Developmental Question: Has this happened over time
• Theoretical Question: What underlies this phenomenon?
Research Methods
• Ethnography
• Firsthand studies of people using participant observation or interviewing
• Surveys
• Standardized and openended questions
• Consider sampling
• Experiments
• Test a hypothesis under highly controlled conditions established by an investigator
Sociological Research
• Life Histories
• Belong purely to sociology – they have no place in the natural sciences
• Comparative Research
• Making comparisons is central to sociological research
• Understanding cause and effect
• Misuse of statistics
Ethical Considerations and Problems
• Vulnerable populations
• Human subjects
• Bias
• Limitations of Research • Influence of sociology
Examples
• Heal This. Gay Men’s Healthcare Experiences
• Diabetes Study
• The sociology of sports
The Sociological Study of Culture th
• Durkheim: Basis for anthropology during the 19 century
• A social science that specifically focuses on the study of cultural differences and
similarities among the world’s people
Culture
• Values: abstract ideals
• Norms: definite principles or rules people are expected to observe
Rules and expectations by which society guides the behavior of its members
• TYPES
• PROSCRIPTIVE
• Should nots, prohibited
• PRESCRIPTIVE
• Shoulds, prescribed like medicine
• FURTHER BREAKDOWN
• FOLKWAYS
• Norms for routine and causal interaction
• MORES
• Widely observed and have great moral Significance
• Culture Turn: sociology’s recent emphasis on the importance of understanding the
role of culture in daily life
Human Culture
• Interaction of Nature/Nurture
• Cultural Diversity
High culture
• Cultural patterns that distinguish a society’s elite
Popular culture
• Cultural patterns that are widespread among society’s population
• Subculture
• Cultural patterns set apart some segment of society’s population
• Counterculture
• Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society
Ethnocentrism
• The practice of judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture
• Cultural relativism
• The practice of judging a culture by its own standards
• Cultural Universals
• Marriage, language
Human Culture • Language – impact on policy
• Consider words like “lifestyle”
• What does it mean?
• How has it been used in media
• Does it imply a choice?
Societies of the Modern World
• Industrialized “first world societies
• 18 century to the present
• Communist “secthd world societies”
• Early 20 century to early 1990s
• Developing “third world societies”
• 18 century to present (mostly colonized)
• Newly Industrializing economies
• 1970s to present
Recorded Immigration to United States by Region of Birth
Multiculturalism
• An educational program recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and
promoting the equality of all cultural traditions
• Eurocentrism – the dominance of European (especially English) cultural
patterns
• Afrocentrism – the dominance of African cultural patterns
Robin Williams’ 10 Widespread Values That Are Central to Our American Way of Life
• Equal opportunity
• Achievement and success
• Material comfort
• Activity and work
• Practicality and work
• Progress
• Science
• Democracy and free enterprise
• Freedom
• Racism and group superiority
Socialization: culture, society, and child socialization
• Unsocialized Children and language devleopment
• The “Wild Boy of Aveyron”
• Genie
The case for second languages and development: Is it ethnocentricity clashing with
science?
Nature v. Nurture
Sociobiology – the role of nature • Elements of society have a naturalistic root
Behaviorism the role of nurture
• Most of who and what we are as a species is learned, or social in nature
Is it sociobiology or behaviorism?
• It’s both, but from a sociological perspective, nurture matters more
Sigmund Freud: Elements Of Personality
• Basic human needs
• Eros and Thanatos as opposing forces
• Developing personality
• The id
• Basic drives
• The ego
• Efforts to achieve balance
• The superego
• Culture within
• Managed conflict
• Id and superego are in constant states of conflict, with the ego balancing the two
Critique of Freud
• Studies reflect gender bias
• Influences the study of personality
• Sociologists note Freud’s contributions
• Internalization of social norms
• Childhood experiences have lasting impact
Theories of Child Development against a backdrop of race, class gender
• Jean Piaget and the states of cognitive development
• Described several distinct stages of cognitive development during which children
learn to think about themselves and their environment. Each stage involves the
acquisition of new skills and depends on the successful completion of the preceding
one.
• ?? How did this thinking affect polices, practices, and guidelines for medical care
Critique of Piaget
• Differed from Freud viewed the mind as active and creative
• Cognitive stages result of biological maturation and social experience
• Sociology views traditional society as limits development of abstract and critical
thought
Lawrence Kohlberg: Moral Development
Moral reasoning
The ways in which individuals judge situations as right or wrong
Preconventional
Young children experience the world as pain or pleasure
Conventional Teen years what pleases parents, consistent with cultural norms
Postconventional
Final stage consider abstract ethical principles
Critique of Kohlberg
• Like Piaget viewed moral development as stages
• Many people do not reach the final stage
• Research limited to boys, generalized to population
Critique of Erickson
Theory views personality as a lifelong process and success at one stage prepares us for
the next challenge
• Critics say:not everyone confronts the challenges in the same order
• Not clear if failure to meet one challenge predicts failure in other stages
• Do other cultures share Erickson’s definition of successful life
Carol Gilligan: Gender Factor
Compared boy’s and girl’s moral reasoning
• Boy’s develop a justice perspective
• Formal rules define right and wrong
• Girl’s develop a care and responsibility perspective
• Personal relationships define reasoning
Critical evaluation
Cultural conditioning accounted for the differences
As more women enter the workplace will justice replace the care and responsibility
perspective
Agents of Socialization
• Media
• Schools
• Peers
• Family
• Work
Mass Media
IMPERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS AIMED AT A VAST AUDIENCE
• TELEVISIONS IN THE UNITED STATES
• HOURS OF VIEWING TELEVISION
• AVERAGE HOUSEHOLD, 7 HOURS PER DAY
• ALMOST HALF OF THEIR FREE TIME
• CHILDREN AVERAGE 5 ½ HOURS PER DAY
Criticisms about Programming
• Some liberal concerns about race and gender inequality in representation
• Some conservative concerns about advancing liberal causes “politically correct”
• Violence in mass media Social Control
Various means by which members of society encourage conformity to norms
• GUILT
• SHAME
• ?? Policies and procedures that have an undercurrent of shame – meant to
induce shameful feelings
Total Institutions
A setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society and manipulated by an
administrative staff.
ERVING GOFFMAN (1961)
Resocialization
Radically changing an inmate’s personality by carefully controlling the environment
ERVING GOFFMAN (1961)
• Staff breaks down existing identity
• Staff rebuilds personality using rewards and punishments
Total institutions affect people in different ways: rehabilitated, little effect or hostile,
some develop an institutionalized personality
Groups, Networks and Organizations
Formal Organizations:
Large secondary groups, organized to achieve goals efficiently
• Utilitarian
• Normative
• Coercive
Bureaucracy
• Rational model designed to perform complex tasks efficiently
• Max Weber’s six elements to promote organizational efficiency
Problems with Bureaucracies
• Bureaucratic alienation
• Bureaucratic inefficiency and ritualism
• Bureaucratic inertia
• Oligarchy
Theories of Organizations
• Weber
• Developed the first systematic interpretation of the rise of modern organizations
• Said organizations are ways of coordinating the activities of human beings, or the
goods they produce, in a stable way across space and time
• Foucault
• Showed that the architecture of an organization is directly involved with its social makeup and system of authority
Dysfunction of Bureaucracy
• Robert Merton examined Weber’s bureaucratic ideal type and concluded that several
elements inherent in bureaucracy could lead to harmful consequences for the smooth
functioning of the bureaucracy itself (1957)
Merton’s Concerns
• Bureaucrats are trained to rely strictly on written rules and procedures
• Adherence to the bureaucratic rules could eventually take precedence over the
underlying organizational goals.
• Possibility of tension between the public and bureaucracy: inability to meet
consumer’s needs
Big Brother
• Weber: concern regarding the diminishing of democracy with the advance of modern
forms of organization
• Rule by faceless bureaucrats
• Dwight D. Eisenhower and the military industrial complex
Capitalism and Democracy
• Tax Cuts for the Wealthy
• Massive Debt
• Public vs. Private
• Think Tanks
• Shrinking Middle Class
Social Isolation
• Miller McPherson, Lynn SmithLovin, and Matthew E. Brashears. “Social Isolation in
America, 19852004”
• Meaning
McDONALDIZATION OF SOCIETY
• Efficiency
• Do it quickly
• Calculabilit
• Do it according to plan
• Uniformity and predictability
• Leave nothing to chance
• Control through automation
• Humans are most unreliable factor
• Ritzer’s criticism
Deviance, Crime, and Social Culture
• Deviance varies according to cultural norms
• No thought or action is inherently deviant
• People become deviant
• How other perceive and label us
• Deviance involves social power
• Rulemakers, rulebreakers, and ruleenforcers • Norms and applying them are linked to social position
Deviance and Inequality
Socialconflict analysis
• Deviance and power
• Norms or laws reflect interests of rich and powerful
• Powerful have resources to resist deviant labels
• Belief that norms and laws are natural and good masks political character
Social Control
The attempts a society makes at regulating thought and behavior
• Criminal justice system
• A formal response by police, courts and prison officials to alleged violations of the
law
• Biological context
• Biological factors may have a real but modest effect on whether a person becomes
a criminal
• Personality factors
• Deviance is viewed as unsuccessful “socialization”
Merton’s Strain Theory
• Does society provides the means to achieve cultural goals?
• Conformity
• Pursuing conventional goals through normal means
• Innovation
• Unconventional means to achieve approved goals
• Ritualism
• Accept institutional means; Reject goals
• Rebellion
• Define new goals and means to achieve goals
• The gap between what “ought to be” and “what is” leaves a person “strained”
Emile Durkheim
Functions of deviance: structuralfunctional analysis
• Affirms cultural values
• Clarifies moral boundaries
• Promotes social unity
• Encourages social change
Crime
• The violation of criminal laws enacted by a locality state, or the federal government
• Two elements
• The act itself
• Criminal intent
• Crimes against the person
• Direct violence, or threat of it • Crimes against property
• Involves theft of property
• Criminal statistics
• Victimization surveys state crime rate is two to four times higher than official
reports
Profile of a Criminal
• Agepersons between the ages of 15 and 24
• 14% of population
• 39% of arrests for violent crime
• 46.8% of property crimes
• Gender
• 70.1% of property crimes and 82.6% of all violent crimes are committed by males
• Social class
• Violent crimes committed by a few in poor neighborhoods
• White collar and corporate crime committed by more affluent
• Race and ethnicity
• 69.7% of arrests involve white people
• People of color are over criminalized
Deviance and Capitalism
Steven Spitzer’s likely targets of labeling
• People who interfere with capitalism
• People who cannot or will not work
• People who resist authority
• Anyone who directly challenges the status quo
• Whitecollar crime
• Those committed by people of high social position in the course of their
occupations
• Corporate crime
• Illegal actions of a corporation or people acting o its behalf
• Organized crime
• A business supplying illegal goods or services
Justice System
• Police: primary point of contact between population and criminal justice system
• Lots of discretion
• How serious is the crime?
• What is the victim’s preference?
• Is the suspect cooperative or not?
• Have they arrested the suspect before?
• Are bystanders present?
• What is the suspect’s race?
• Courts: plea bargaining often results in pressure to plead guilty
• Reduced charge
• Reduced sentence • Compromises the adversarial process
Justifications for Punishment
• Retribution
• Moral vengeance inflicted
• Deterrence
• Discourage future criminality
• Rehabilitation
• Reform offenders while in prison
• Societal protection
• Temporary removal of offender through incarceration
• Permanent removal by execution
• Criminal recidivism
• Subsequent offences by people convicted of crimes
Interpretation of Statistics
• Reduction in youth population
• Changes in policing
• More prison
• Better economy
• Declining drug trade
“When a Dissertation Makes a Difference” (New York Times, March 20, 2004
• Devah Pager
• Studied the difficulties of former prisoners trying to find work
• Findings: it is easier for a white person with a felony conviction to get a job than
for a black person whose record is clean
• ACTION RESEARCH: To do research that can affect policy
Stratification
• Sociologists speak of stratification to describe inequalities and groups within human
societies
The three key aspects are:
• Class
• Status
• Power (Weber, 1947)
Systems of Stratification
• The rankings apply to social categories of people who share a common characteristic
without necessarily interacting or identifying with each other
• People’s life experiences and opportunities depend heavily on how their social
category is ranked
• The ranks of different social categories tend to change very slowly over time.
Class
• A social class is a large group of people who occupy a similar economic position in the wider society.
• Life chances: Weber – best way to understand the meaning of class
Dimensions of Class
• Income
• Occupational wages and earnings from investments
• Wealth
• The total value of money and other assets, minus any debt
• Social power
• The ability to control, even in the face of resistance
• Occupational prestige
• Jobrelated status
• Schooling
• Key to better career opportunities
Social Classes in U.S.
• The upper class
• 5 % of the population
• The middle class
• 4045% of the population
• The working class
• 33% of the population
• The lower class
• The remaining 20% of people
Class, cont.
Class system differ from slavery and castes in four main respects:
• Class systems are fluid
• Class position are in some part achieved
• Class is economically based
• Class systems are large scale and impersonal
Ideology
• Cultural beliefs that justify stratification
• Plato
• Every culture considers some type of inequality “fair”
• Marx
• Capitalist societies keep wealth and power for a few
• Spencer
• Societies “survival of the fittest”
DavisMoore
• Social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of a society
• The greater the importance of a position, the more rewards a society attaches to it
• Egalitarian societies offer little incentive for people to try their best
• Critical evaluation
Karl Marx: Class and Conflict • Most people have one of two relationships with the means of production
• Own productive property “bourgeoisie”
• Work for others “proletariat”
• Capitalism creates great inequality in power and wealth
• This oppression would drive the working majority to organize and overthrow the
capitalism
The Kuznets Curve
• The Kuznets Curve, named for the Nobel Prizewinning economist who first advanced
the idea in 1955, argues that inequality increases during early industrialization
eventually stabilizing at low levels. There is some evidence that inequality may
increase once again during the transition to postindustrial society.
Kuznets Curve
The American Dream
• Earnings have stalled for many workers
• Many persons need to hold more than one job
• More jobs offer little income
• Young people are remaining at (and returning to) home
• Middleclass slide
• Median income doubled between 19501973; Grown only 25% since
Global Economy and Class Structure
Global economic expansion
• Jobs changed from manufacturing to service work
• Creates upward mobility for educated people
• Investments for those with money
• “Downsizing” in companies effects “average” workers
Changing Terminology
• Old terminology
• First world –industrialized rich countries
• Second world –less industrial socialist countries
• Third world –nonindustrialized poor countries
• Problems with old terminology
• After cold war, second world no longer existed
• 100 country third world too economically diverse to be meaningful
New Terminology
• New terminology
• Highincome – richest forty nations with the highest standard of living
• Middleincome – somewhat poorer nations with economic development typical for
the world as a whole
• Lowincome – remaining sixty with lowest productivity and extensive poverty
• The extent of global inequality is much greater than these comparisons suggest. Well
off people in rich countries live ‘worlds apart’ from the poorest people in lowincome
countries High Income Countries
• First to develop during industrial revolution two centuries ago
• In the year 2000, includes some 900 million people
• Enjoy over half the world’s income
• More income means control of world’s financial markets
• Control of financial markets means control of other countries
• Examples
• United States, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, Canada, etc.
Middle IncomePer Capita Income Ranging From $2,500 to $10,000
• Limited industrialization
• Onehalf of the people are rural and engage in agricultural activities
• Life is difficult:
• A general lack of good education, medical care, and safe water
• Onethird of all people live in middleincome countries
• Examples
• Russia, Eastern European countries, Latin America, and some African countries
Low Income
• 60 nations in this category
• About onehalf the world’s people
• Mostly poor, rural economies
• Life expectancy is very short
• Examples:
• Africa, and much of Asia
Correlates of Global Poverty
• Technology
• Onequarter of
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