HIS 317L Final Material Notes 03/27/2013
Postwar Work
Drive up demand for consumer products (automobiles, refrigerators, televisions, etc.) to drive
production – reinvigorate patriarchal nuclear family
Wartime production increased women in labor force from under 14 million in 1940 to over 19
million in 1945
Women encouraged/forced to return home
TaftHartley Act 1948 stripped
Postwar Strategies
US looks to Pacific Rim as trade partner (esp during reconstruction of western Europe during
post WWII)
Pacific rim as market for US goods and profitable region for export of capital, overseas
investment
Theories
Social scientists discredit biological theories of racial superiority and credit concept of ethnicity
as dominant paradigm to explain race relations
Civil rights and social justice struggles within Cold War context – US as a model for democracy
Assimilation of blacks in US through dismantling of Jim Crow segregation and nonwhites should
accommodate demands of modernity
Robert Park’s Race relations cycle
4 stages in process of ethnic assimilation
initial contact between outsider and host society
economic and political competition
economic and cultural accommodation of the ethnic to the host society
assimilation in to the host society
patterns of assimilation assumed to be “universal” to all newcomers burden of “latecomer” to modernize and assimilate to host society
liberal social scientists articulated theory of modernization that could be deployed as an
ideological alternative to communism in resolving problem of the Third World or domestically,
ethnic assimilation as a non radical solution to the”negro problem”
individual competition in “colorblind” society
ethnicity theory equality could be achieved through individual effort, cultural assimilation,
political accommodation not trhough political organization, community empowerment,
structural dismantling of racism, etc.
Homosexuality and communism
Cold war search for traitors and subversives, homophobia and anticommunism went together
Anticommunist crusaders warned that homesexuality weakened national security by weakening
the nation’s ‘moral fiber’
Communism perversion to natural economic order, homosexuality considered perversion to
natural biological order
Moral from lecture on Monday 3/25
Take home message – model minority in Cold War context
Puts minorities against each other
Scolding the more local minorities
Personal failure v structural inequalities
Article asserts: if Asians can achieve so much with so little in this society, other racial minorities
could succeed if they tried harder, ; if they fail the fault lies in their lack of initiative and not in
the deep structural inequalities based on race
TODAY – Wednesday, March 27, 13
“The Four Prisons’ and the Movements of Liberation” Asian American Activism from the 1960’s
to the 1990’s” Glenn Omatsu
MUST READ
1960’S social movements, Asian American Movement and the Creation of Ethnic Studies
Four Prisons Iranian philosopher Ali Shariati says we exist within four prisons
1 prion imposed by history and geography
1960’s generation social movements
The AA movement’s struggles for liberation
Historical forces of racism, poverty, war, exploitation, power and authority
Generate new ideologies based on Third World Leaders
Redefine human values and ethnic identity
Grassroots organizations (student orgs, writers, artists, workers, community members)
Challenged prevailing notion of power
Third World Liberation
Asian American movement part of larger, global social movements inspired by tHird world
movements
*Black liberation via Malcom X (Not MLK Jr)
Freedom “by any means necessary”
Black Panthers Party, Huey Newton and Bobby Seale
Black/Brown/Yellow Power
More about fundamental questions of oppression and power
Understand that the AA and san Francisco strike part of greater larger movement
Not focused on only racial pride and access, MLK jr. and the Civil rights movement
Not focused only seeking legitimacy and representation within US society but liberation at
large, oppression and power
Involved students but also community members of elderly, workers, high school youth
“that's how we make changes, we unite” 1960’s70;s
generation based on words like:
malcom x by any means necessary
mao “serve the people”
“power to the people”
united front” work
“consciousness” and “liberation”
ideology
the people and not the elites make history
slogans
tied to grassroots, every day people
“one struggle, many fronts”
the people, and etc.
San Francisco State Strike
Longest student strike in US history
5 months, Nov 1968March 1969
third world liberation front (coalition of minority campus groups) made demands
ethnic studies
open admissions
community control of/redefinition of the education system 03/27/2013
Friday, March 29, 13 03/27/2013
Samuel Ichiye Hayakawa
Japanese Canadian American
English professor at SF state 195568
President of San Francisco State University 196873
US Senator from California 1976, Republican
Against student strike and demands
At one point pulled wires out of speakers on a van during strike
World Wide Trend
Social movements of the 1960’s part of larger, worldwide trend
Caused “crisis of legitimation” for ruling circles
Antiauthoritarian antiimperialist
Strike characteristics
On workingclass campus, coalition of Third World students linked to communities
Rooted in resistance
Drew inspiration from international third world leaders and revolutions
Confronted questions of racism, imperialist wars, sexuality, power and oppression through its
demands
Raised demands through mass mobilizations and militant, direct action
Criticism of 1960’s movements
Winifred Breines challenges critics, especially white male activists from elite backgrounds who
divide the social movements into 2 … 03/27/2013
“good” phase of early by participatory democracy
bad phase of 1968 violence
Political Consciousness and Social Change
political consciousness + social change = “Theory becomes a material force when it is grasped
by the masses”
promote political change through direction action, community building, and mass
education that raised political consciousness in the community
community: unorganized, low income workers, tenants, smallbusiness people, formerly
imprisoned people, high school youth, senior citizens, etc.
Redefining Asian Americans
Active participants in making history
Ordinary people (not just elites) could make history by transforming knowledge
Legacy of 1960’s Social Movements
Curricular reform in schools
Development of ethnic studies (African American Studies, Native Ameriacn, etc.)
Multiculturalism
Sometimes critiqued bc sometimes celebration of diversity
Status of women and homosexuals in society
Policy changes and policy makers
Results beyond ethnic studies
Changed consciousness of those involved
New vision for their communities
Created grassroots projects
Student orgs, etc. 03/27/2013
Empowered previously disenfranchised sectors of society
Gentrification struggles
Community Struggles Following the strike
Housing and antieviction campaigns
Defend education rights
Union organizing drives
Campaigns for jobs and social services
Demands for democratic rights, equality, justice
1970’s
economic crisis of 1970’s
high inflation in 70’s
declining corporate profits
shifts in economy (industry to service sector)
culminating with conservative Republican President Reagan 1981 (“Reaganomics”)
Transnationalism
Important for Vincent chen
Plant closures in major industries
Production relocated overseas
Massive layoffs and wage cuts
*transnational corporation in the US moved to areas (Southern US) that weren’t unionized
personal responsibility rhetoric
especially hurts African Americans
Other corporate offense factors
Ideological offensive – restoring faith in free enterprise and capitalism through the education
system
“too much democracy” crisis for those in power, marginalized demanding opportunities, need
government restrictions, social welfare reform
*shift to day to day struggle v larger issues
killed grassroots political organizations 03/27/2013
Monday, April 1, 13 03/27/2013
Today
Gender and Asian American Studies
Cultural Nationalism and feminism
Frank Chin, intro to the Big Aieee!
Maxine Hong Kingston, The Woman Warrior
IHotel, Karen Tei Yamashita
150 room hotel that was full of elderly Filipinos. A symbol
regarding issues of trying to convert small international hotel, wanted to turn it into a parking lot
International Hotel Struggle
Kearney and Jackson street, manila town area of san Francisco
Community, faculty, students, etc. drew awareness to plight of elderly Filipino men living in the
International Hotel, being forced out of their home
Thousands mobilized to support them in the streets
Gentrification issues—financial district of San Francisco, redevelopment displacing this poor,
elderly group
Residents
Residents of IHotel mostly elderly Filipino men without families, surviving on pensions and
welfare
Worked for decades in exploited, menial labor conditions in the US
Rent is approx.. $38 per month, 4069 square foot rooms
Extreme shortage of low cost housing, 1% vacancy in the city at that time
What happened?
1968 United Filipino Assosiation negotiates 03/27/2013
Protests
Picketed offices of walter Shorenstein, head of MiltonMeyer Company that owned the property
Tenants suffered under deteriorating conditions, lack of service and repairs
Community accused mayor’s office of being hostile due to Shorestein’s large donations
Thousands surrounding building, barricaded doors, chanted “no,no, evictions”
th
Final residents evicted august 4 , 1977
Building stood empty while fate of site debated, demolished 1981
Hyper Masculinity During the Asian American Movement
Frank Chin
Born 1940 in Berkeley, CA
Raised by white couple in CA until age of 6 when his mother reclaimed him
Went to UC Berkeley
American book award in 1989
Considered a pioneer Asian American writer and involved with theatre and also activist
Involved with Asian American movement and Japanese American redress movement (write and
track down surviving people who were interned)
Some consider pioneer in Asian American movement
Aiieee! An Anthology of Asian American Writers
Published in 1974 by Howard University Press (historically black university press)
Anthology insisted on “authentic” expressions of traditional Chinese, Japanese, Filipino,
experiences v Asian American works that were accepted by mainstream culture
Reaction to racism, self contempt/rejection Asian American experienced
Issues of “Authenticity” 03/27/2013
Concerned with “authentic” or “Real” Chinese writing and Confucian traditions v “Christian
brainwashing”
Critical, in reaction to Asian American pieces that have been accepted by white mainstream
culture, not real Chinese culture
“Real” v “Fake” Chinese Culture
we describe the real from its sources in the Asian fairy tale and the Confucian heroic tradition, to
make the work of these Asian American writers understandable in its own terms
we describe the fake from its sources in Christian dogma and in western philosophy, history, and
literature…
Frank Chin characteristics
hyper masculine, noneffeminate, manhood, sexist, patriarchal, homophobic
asserts a particular vision of Asian American identity (not just Asian or American) that is critical
of white influence
critical of Asian americans who marry outside their race
critical of Christian influence
heavily critiques other Asian American writers for reasserting stereotypes, telling folklore or
traditional stories inauthenticaly, and writing mother daughter memoirs
esp. critiques authors such as David Henry Hwang, Maxine Hong Kingston, and Amy Tan
big fight between Chin and Maxine Hong Kingston write letters to each other, popularized at that
time
Chins criticisms are
1. Unfair Kingston is not trying to be authentically chinese
2. Fair. Regardless of her intentions, she is read by the mainstream as authentic and thus
represents chinese inappropriately
3. Complicated Kingston inserts race and gender into her work. But chin’s does have some points
4. Misguided. Chin is just jealous of her success 03/27/2013
Wednesday, April 3, 13
Quiz 1
Maxine Hong Kingston
Born in 1940 in Stockton, CA
Attended UC Berkeley
The Woman Warrior one of the best known works of Asian American literature
Won the national book critics circle award for best book of nonfiction published in 1976
Chinese americans critique its authenticity, autobiographical status, representations of chinese culture, and
thus her integrity as an author
Kingston’s work
Pushes boundaries of traditional genres between
Fiction and non fiction
Autobiography and memoir
Living and dead, etc.
Empowerment through “talkstory”
Mother tells daughter empowering folklore stories of female heroines
Silence as a form of punishment 03/27/2013
Friday, April 5, 13
Yesterday
Frank Chin
Maxine Hong Kingston
Gender and Feminism
Today
1965 Immigration and Nationality Act aka “Hart Cellar Act”
nativist groups opposed to immigration from non western European countries mollified by
projections that there would be too few Asian American citizens for the family reunification
provisions
to portray itself as leader of the “free world” needed to work on domestic racial discrimination
to “win the hearts and minds” of minorities, President Lyndon B Johnson pushed through civil
rights programs and immigration reform
7 preferrences for quota immigrants:
1. unmarried children over age of 21 of us citizens
2. spouses and unmarried children of permanent residents
3. professionals, scientist and artist of “Exceptional ability”
4. married children over age of 21 of us citizens
5. siblings of us citizens
6. workers, skilled and unskilled, in occupations with labor shortage in US
7. refugees
the outcome that they didn’t expect: didn’t think that there were that many Asian in the US
Brain Drain
early 1970’s large number of highly trained professionals entered the US especially in the STEM
fields 03/27/2013
midlate 1970’s professionals dropped to less than 1/5 of total due to congress restricting the
entrance of professionals and other workers because of the economic decline
influx of highly educated professionals in medical and scientific fields – historically grounds the
“model minority” image
Health Professionals
1976 Health Professions Educational Assistance Act
reduced health professionals required the Dept of Labor to remove physicans and surgeons from
shortage field
alien physicians and surgeoins could apply to enter the US only if passed parts 1 and 2 of
national board of medical examiners examination or equivalent, visa qualifying examination
1977 Eilberg Act
further constrained health professionals
responsibility for labor certification shifted to employers from US Dept. of Labor. File
application for alien employment certification for each alien wished to hire and prove they tried
to recruit US citizens and guarantee would pay aliens lower wages
thus health professionals dropped in 1980’s
brain drain reduced
1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act
civil and criminal penalties for employers knowingly hiring undocumented aliens
temporary resident status to aliens residing in us since before jan 1 1982
promised permanent resident status to those aliens after 18 months
affected Mexicans more (b/c fewer undocumented Asian immigrants)
Post 196580’s Immigration
Significant population increases
Refugees
About 1 million refugees since 197580’s
¾ from Vietnam laos and Cambodia 03/27/2013
not always voluntary immigration
escape filled with peril and lengthy time period
psychological difficulties
survival in new country
largely tied to US military involvement during wars
California largest refuge population and Texas second
Other acts affecting contemporary Asian immigration
1980 refugee act
adopted UN definition of refugee
1987 amerasian homecoming act
allowed AmericanVietnamese born between jan 1 19621976 and certain family members to be
admitted
mixed race children could enter the US
4,500
operation baby lift evacuation of over 3,300 children (first lift in 1975 crashed killing 138 people) 03/27/2013
th
Monday, April 8 2013
Read until 77
Vietnam
Vietnamese nationalists led by Viet Minh (communist group formed by Ho Chi Minh in 1944)
began plans to seize power in Vietnam
Sent agents to Laos and Cambodia to forestall French reoccupation and work with nationalists
When japan surrendered in 1945 Vietnam Laos and Cambodia returned to France and war for
independence ensured
Us supported “containing” the spread of communism
The Viet Minh defeat French in 1954, Geneva agreements divide Vietnam at the 17 parallel
US supports anticommunist leader in the South
Estimated 1 million people, 2/3 Catholics, migrated from the North to the South
120,000 migrated North
By 1965, President LBJ given extraordinary power in Vietnam by Congress
Bombing raids on North Vietnam 5 days after US destroyer shelled
US supporting South Vietnam (Army of Republic of Vietnam) to prevent spread of Communism
By end of 1967, half a million US troops in Vietnam and US spending $2 billion per month
By 1969 US starts bombing Cambodia to deny Viet Cong, more than 100,000 tons of bombs
during 15 months
US vilates Geneva Conference agreement where Laos had neutrality and fights war against
Pathet Lao using army of 9,00 Hmong hill tribesmen led by General Vang Pao
As more and more Hmong killed, US uses air tactics and drops more than 2 million tons of
bombs on Laos to destroy the Ho Chi Minh trail (north Vietnamese supply route to the South)
th
Fall of Saigon April 30 , 1975 ends war with Communist party
Saigon Airlift April 29 , 1975 03/27/2013
Operation Babylift
April 1975
Coordinated by organizations such as Holt International, Friends of Children of Viet Nam,
Catholic Relief Service, Pear S Buck Foundation, International Social Services, etc.
Children: those whose lost parents, were mixed race (US GI fathers and Vietnamese mothers)
sick and disabled
2,700 children flow to the US
1,300 send to Canada, Australia, Europe
controversial because of inaccurate paperwork/documentation and especially because not all
children were “orphans”. Some parents reclaimed children later
President Gerald Ford announced “Operation Babylift”” where children from orphanages would
be evacuated via military and private airlifts
$2 million allocated for 30 planned flights
First Flight, C5A Galaxy plan crashed due to mechanical failure
Of the 330 on board, 176 lived and 154 died. Volunteers service member and young children
died
Not enough oxygen masks and landed into rice paddy (difficult to help reach)
Vietnamese Population
Prior to 1975, about 15,000 Vietnamese living in the US (exchange students, military wives)
Vietnam war leads to migration cut out of Vietnam
By 1980, 250,000
By 1990, 500,000
By late 1990’s, one million
Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act of 1975 03/27/2013
Federal government reimbursed state governments for cash assistance, medical and social
services for refugees
Dept. of health, education and welfare not dept. of health and human services, gave grants to
agencies to provide refugees with English training, employment, health services
Basic needs via government funds but direct settlement handled by local charity orgs
Assistance reduced in early 1980’s
Responsibility for the refugee populations, the US
First Wave refugees
First wave 1975 evacuees
Often families, left as South Vietnam was being overtaken, feared political reprisals because of
employment, economic status, religious beliefs. Many worked for US govt. or South Vietnamese
military or government
Many airlifted out, short time in processing camps, many give 3 years’ $ assistance
End 1975, about 140k refugees in US
Middleclass/elite, more educated, Catholic, English
Boat People
Second Wave of Refugees
“boat people” from Vietnam
“land people” from laos and Cambodia
generally poorer, less educated, less urbanized, more ethnically diverse, fewer catholics and more
Buddhists and animists
encountered more difficulties in escape (mostly young males and some women and children)
ill health, inadequate nutrition, psychological traumas by time reached camps
Ethnic Chinese Refugees
Ethnic minority in Vietnam, Chinese population of approx. 2 million
Marginalized entrepreneurial class 03/27/2013
Small percentage of Vietnamese population but controlled most of retail trade
After 1975, communist regime targeted this group and increased persecution of ethnic minorities,
encouraging them to leave
Refugees
Indochinese parole program: 197677 US attorney general authorized admission of limited
number of refugees
197880, mass exodus of refugees, fled by boats (many small and ill equipped to handle number
of occupants)
endured treacherous seas with pirates to neighboring countries with refugee camps (Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Hong Kong)
unlike other immigrants, do not leave country voluntarily
leave due to lifethreatening circumstances or are forcibly expelled, exiled political refugees
less choice in settlement location
differences in preparation affecting adaptation and survival (language abilities, capital, planning,
contacts in new country, feelings of loss, depression, survivors guilt)
Refugee Reactions
Sympathy for fleeing refugees but public not in favor of admitting them to US
Vietnam war highly unpopular, refugees as reminder of lost war and casualties
Us compelled to accept them due to policies to undermine communist regimes and moreal
responsibility
Economic downtown, high unemployment, high inflation in mid 1970’s fueled antiVietnamese
sentiments
Resettlement
Programs via federal agencies and volunteer agencies (VOLAG’s), many being religious
charities
Resettlement programs dispersed refugees throughout US hoping to expedite assimilation, not
overwhelm certain states
Make refugees selfsufficient
Without and established Vietnamese community prior to 1975, no large network or support or
sponsors
Adaptation 03/27/2013
Government neglected other issues central to adaptation: cultural, social, mental adjustment that
ethnic communities could help
Isolated Vietnamese from communities and other Asians
Assimilation
Secondary and chain migration
Secondary migration: moving from place of original settlement to new community
Chain migration: migrated to areas based on primary social relationships among coethnics,
settled near sponsors who were relatives or ethnic sponsors
Refugees reorganized, established ethnic communities, voluntary segregation in US
Economic and social reasons for secondary migration
Settlement
Western parts of US 54.5%
Southern parts of US 27.4%
Settlement reasons
Social: rejoining relatives and friends, ethnic community
Better climate
Jobs: un/low skilled jobs, factories/assembly line workers, fishing opportunities, small/medium
business owners, working with coethnics, etc.
“Little Saigon” Westminster, Orange County, California
largest ethnic community for Vietnamese
ethnic enclaves
by late 1970’s formation of ethnic enclaves
residences, restaurants, retail shops, markets, professional businesses, entertainment places,
festivals and community centers
multigenerational families and nonkin networks
Monday we talked about:
Linda trinh vo
Vietnam war
Indochina migration and refugee assistance act of 1975
Operation babylift
1 wave and 2 wave
drastic Vietnamese population increase 03/27/2013
Wednesday, April 10 2013 03/27/2013
Today
“Growing up Hmong in Laos and America: Two Generations of women through my eyes” by Pa
Xiong Gonzalo
CIA’S secret war in Laos
Hmong American experiences
(Struggles with acculturation, Hmong Am identity, poverty, racism, generational )
Hmong Population estimates in Asia
China 46 million (China classifies Hmong in the “Miao” group that includes different ethnic
groups)
Vietnam: 787,604
Laos
Thailand
Burma
Population Estimates in Western Countries
US
40% in California
large populations in Minnesota and Wisconsin
France
Australia 1,800
Canada 787
French Guyana 5001000
Germany 70 03/27/2013
General Hmong Facts
People without a homeland/country of own
Oral history of tradition v. long history of written language (Story cloths)
Not a lot of academic research conducted until 1990’s
Traditionally agrarian societies, practiced shamanism and ancestor worship
Introduced to monetary system in 1890’s French colonial Laos, sold opium poppies
Society organized by patrilineal clan system
Traditional roles
Agrarian society, few formal education/school
Inside home: women as wives,
Outside home: women farmed with family members
Work in public sphere: men
Men carry on family clan name, care for their aged parents
Women have dowry, leave family once married, less valued
Marriage early (women 1318, men 1825) bearing children highly valued, polygamy existed
Women gain more economic independence with men off in war in 1960’s
Brief Hmong Timeline
Early as 2500 BC Hmong arrive in northwestern China from Siberia
Many conflicts/wars between Hmong and Chinese dynasties
1740 and after: many Hmong migrate out of China
196375: The Vietnam war and the US secret army in Laos to fight pathet lao/communism 03/27/2013
1975 to present time: Hmong refugees move to refugee camps in Thailand and then to the US,
France, Australia, French Guyana, and Canada
December 2003: US State Dept. agrees to accept applications for resettlement from 15,000
Laotian Hmong refugees living in Wat Thamkrabok, Thailand
June 2004 : First Hmong refugees from Wat begin arriving in Minnesota, California Wisconsin
and other state
Training for Secret War in Loas
“mr pop” Edgar Buell, a retired Indiana farmer and humanitarian worker
CIA’s Secret War in Laos 196375
In 1961, colonel Bill Lair, re
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