PSYC104 Chapter Notes - Chapter 1-2: Electromagnetic Hypersensitivity, Social Intuitionism, Confirmation Bias
21 May 2018
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What is Science and The Scientific
Enterprise – Week Two Readings
CHAPTER ONE
No method will ensure that scientists will always approach their work objectively and
honestly – it is not always deliberate either.
LeCour – made an impressive looking study which was published in a respected journal, later
discovered that the results were faked as there was no possible way they could have
conducted the study with the number of participants they had.
- Confirmation bias – people wanted to believe the results even though it was
contradictory to other studies.
Using Science to Understand Our World
Humanly universal to seek to understand, predict and control the world around us, but the
knowledge is not easy to obtain.
Historically people tried to understand by magical thinking and superstition – science is the
only one of several ways of ‘knowing’.
The Goals of Science
Abstract thought (speculation).
Theories – a set of facts and relationships among them to try explain and predict natural
phenomena. Used to discuss hypothetical situations and provide models.
Best theories generate new unexpected predictions
- Must be systematic and precise.
- A good hypothesis will lead to testable predictions to build on the theories.
-Cannot prove that a hypothesis is correct, cannot eliminate the impossible but
compile evidence.
Haidt – Social Intuitionist Model – morality is based to a large degree on a person’s
evaluation of harm and fairness.
Empiricism
Derives from the work of British philosophical school of the same name, emphasising
experience as the source of knowledge.
Foundational way of thinking – shaped modern science.
Barriers:
- Required self-discipline which is not completely natural.
- Human beings are inherently biased.
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- Contradicting theories are likely to be threatening.
John Garcia and Koelling:
- Cannot assume that the organism exposed to classical conditioning was some sort of
generic black box or the passive processor of stimuli into responses.
- Found animals were ‘prepared’ to learn – rats associated taste with illness much faster
and associated light and noises with shock.
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Deduction: Theory -> Hypotheses -> Observation -> Confirmation (top-down)
Induction: Observation -> Pattern -> Hypothesis -> Theory (bottom-up)
Transparent Communication
Scientific results should be shared freely to expand knowledge – journals trying to be more
accessible to public, e.g., educational purposes.
Science, Authority, Common Sense, and Pseudoscience
Loch Ness Monster – unscientific yet people believe.
71% of Americans reported having a paranormal experience, 34% believe in ghosts, 56%
believe that ghosts are the spirits of the dead, 41% believe in extrasensory perception (ESP),
37% believe that houses can be haunted, 65% believe that Ouija boards are dangerous.
No practical way to test these empirically.
Argument from authority – believing people who seem to have some credibility.
Establishing authority is important.
Gray and his daughter’s book – they both have questionable backgrounds because they do
not provide information about their education to help back up their claims.
Another logical fallacy – tendency to confer credibility on a known and legitimate expert
who holds forth on issues unrelated to their areas of expertise (Vaccine and autism).
Reputable authorities are not always correct.
Focus as empiricists should be on data and how it is interpreted, not how many people agree.
Common sense is not necessarily wrong, but there are flaws in using this to reason.
- Heuristics – a shortcut in reasoning.
- Does not have controls and systematic reasoning offered by science.
- Visual illusions and heuristics show that common sense might work in many cases,
but there are flaws.
Pseudoscience:
- Does not follow the rules of science.
- Deviant doctrine, rejecting prevailing scientific theories without evidence to support a
rejection.
find more resources at oneclass.com
find more resources at oneclass.com
Checklist to identify pseudoscience:
- Belief in authority – must come from someone with authority in that area;
- Unrepeatable experiments;
- Handpicked examples;
- Unwillingness to test;
- Disregard of refuting information;
- Built-in subterfuge (testing in a biased way);
- Explanations are abandoned without replacement.
Electromagnetic Hypersensitivity:
- Meta-analyses have discovered little empirical support for electromagnetic
hypersensitivity.
- Some of the researchers involved with electromagnetic hypersensitivity might not be
objective, including researchers who have self-diagnosed with the condition.
Psychology is a Science
The science of behaviour and mental processes.
Psychology is a science – same understanding and same need to predict the natural world
around us. Shared set of values shaping the scientific method.
Psychology still has a need for better public relations.
Basic Versus Applied Science
Basic Science – driven by scientist’s curiosity.
Applied research – aims to solve a particular practical problem. Not for knowledge
purposes but to improve human well-being.
In psychology boundaries exist between these two but are not always clear.
Importance of Thinking Critically
Critical thinking – ability to think rationally, clearly, and independently.
Rational thinking – believing what makes sense.
Critical thinking:
- Skill must be practiced on daily, doesn’t come naturally.
- Learn to prioritise ideas according to importance.
- Is sceptical.
- Requires cognitive resources.
- Elaboration Likelihood Model – using two pathways of central route or peripheral
route.
- First step: focus on the question being asked.
find more resources at oneclass.com
find more resources at oneclass.com
Document Summary
No method will ensure that scientists will always approach their work objectively and honestly it is not always deliberate either. Confirmation bias people wanted to believe the results even though it was contradictory to other studies. Humanly universal to seek to understand, predict and control the world around us, but the knowledge is not easy to obtain. Historically people tried to understand by magical thinking and superstition science is the only one of several ways of knowing". Theories a set of facts and relationships among them to try explain and predict natural phenomena. Used to discuss hypothetical situations and provide models. A good hypothesis will lead to testable predictions to build on the theories. Cannot prove that a hypothesis is correct, cannot eliminate the impossible but compile evidence. Haidt social intuitionist model morality is based to a large degree on a person"s evaluation of harm and fairness.
