CRIM1010 Chapter Notes - Chapter 4: Counter-Revolutionary, Differential Association, Crime Prevention

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White, R and Perrone, S (2015) Crime, Criminality and Criminal Justice, Oxford University
Press. Chapter 4 (pp. 72-88)
Mainstream Perspectives
Introduction
discusses sociological theories and perspectives that see the causes of crime as stemming
from social factors
deals with conceptions of deviancy that focus is not on the social structure, process and
practices that determine and ape both individual and group behaviour, neighbourhood
and the subjective meaning that people bring to their actions and the actions of others
the theories are considered mainstream in two senses
1. they are among the most widely regained and utilise approaches in the field of
criminology that are key to information how we think about and respond to crime
toda
2. they are incorporated into existing systems of the criminal justice system
Sociological Theories
-sociological perspectives: argue that in order to understand the nature and occurrence of
crime, we need to look at macro level factors in particular social structure and conditions
that mould and shape norms, behaviours
- crime is seen as a manifestation of social pathology e.g. poverty, age, discrimination —>
‘social fact’
- according to this perspective, sociological and criminologists are concerned with connecting
wider situational factors and social structural factors with criminal activity
- sociological perspectives argue that behaviour is understood through the acknowledgement
that different societies give rise to different social structures and behaviour
Emile Durkheim: Collective Consciousness and Anomie
- studied ‘social facts’ (as opposed to scientific factors’: events that have an existence,
separate of the actions of individuals but which have powerful influence over them
- the facts comprise of formal laws and regulations as well as informal rules
- According to Durkheim (1997), society is comprised of a series of social facts
humans are inherently egoistic
society is disciplined and held together by the collective consciousness (shared ideas, beliefs,
values that establish society’s moral foundations)
it is the collective consciousness that the state derives its authority
- he noted two important social pathologies that could disrupt social interaction and lead to
social disintegration: anomie and forced division of labour
anomie is a condition of society, it describes a situation of social deregulation in which
shared belief/values are broken down and where moral guides to and constraints on
behaviours have weakened
- distinction between anomie and egoism, both revolve around social norms:
A. anomie: a state of formlessness where appropriate norm are not in place to inhibit deviant
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behaviour
B. egoism: the presence of norms that actively encourage the development of unregulated
aspirations, and encourage and sustain deviant behaviour
rules of conduct are important to establish social solidarity , but can also be the source of the
problem
however, in situations of forced labour: people are forced to take positions and perform
roles they do not choose to do or are unsuited for —> desire to change the system by these
people can destabilise social solidarity
- Durkheim’s defines crime in a different way
crime is considered as an act that offends the social consciousness
it is tied with the fundamental conditions of all social life and serves a social function: release
of social tension and pave the way for social change
- social scientists in turn can examine the nature of a society in order to determine whether
deviancy can be explained in terms of individual pathology in a healthy society or it is linked
to an inappropriately socialise individual in a pathological society
Social Strains
- the underlying theme of many sociological theories is that crime is a result of social
strains/disjuncture within a society
- the sources of tension are thought to be generated by society, not the individual
- the cause of crime is located in social structures/values
- dealing with crime requires strategies and polices aim at institutional reform
- it is a phenomenon that links to strains created by structural opportunities and cultural
processes
- key social conflict in this perspective is the stain between social means and cultural ends
- deviant behaviour is seen as a way to solve problems
Social Disorganisation
- Strain theory: proposes a link between crime and social disorganization also known as a
social ecology perspective. It wasadvanced by the Chicago school of sociology which links the
nature and extent of crime with specific social processes
- These neighbourhoods were typically plagued with economic deprivation and poverty, and
demonstrated a tendency to ethnic heterogeneity and high rates of residential mobility
creating more social cohesion and difficult to maintain
- Shaw and McKay concluded that juvenile offending is linked to the transitional processes of
social change and family disruption social process of settling in experienced by new
immigrants. The new immigrants were rarely integrated into the wider social, economic and
social disorganization.
- Questions of language, education, work skills and social networks all came into play in
shaping the life affairs of individuals and immigrant communities
- There was an association between poverty, unemployment, diminished opportunities and
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crime
Opportunity Theory
- Emphasize the importance of analyzing social values and social structures in examining crime
causation, offer a solution to this dilemma.
- There is a disproportionate balance between the culturally defined goals of a society and the
institutionalized means whereby these goals can be achieved. All individuals share the same
cultural goals, but they have different opportunities to achieve success through the
established means (education and employment) .
- Social structures of opportunity in society are unequally distributed, the majority of citizens
will be prevented from realizing the dream and some of these may resort to maladaptive or
illegal behaviours .
- Individuals are regarded as having the capacity to make meaningful choices on how to
negotiate their future pathway, but their choices are bounded by their location within the
social structure.
Individual Adaptations to the goals and means of society
- Conformism: majority of people who accept culturally defined goals
- Innovation: individuals subscribe to the culturally defined goals but don’t have money to pay
for education
- Ritualism: acknowledgement of culturally defined goals but can’t attain them  go to school
but cannot achieve the goals of success set up for them by society
- Retreatism: individuals choose to reject both mainstream goals and the socially approved
means of achieving them  consummation of drugs and alcohol
- Rebellion: cultural goals no longer relevant  creation of own goals and their own means of
achieving these
Learning Theories of Deviance: Differential Association
- Differential association: a theory that seeks to explain how criminal behaviour is learnt in
interactions between people. This theory argues that people learn to define a situation and
their conduct in relation to the law, and that this learning takes place within specific group
contexts
- People learn to define themselves, their situations and their conduct in relation to the law,
and this learning takes place within specific group contexts
- Individuals are exposed to law abiding citizens and those who hold anti law abiding citizens
creating cultural conflict. Differential association proposes that an individual will commit to a
criminal path when, on balance, the attitudes, associations and patterns favourable to law
breaking exceed those unfavourable to law abiding
- We must attempt to change the way in which certain groups define their immediate
situations and their relationship to law abiding or lawbreaking behaviour
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Document Summary

White, r and perrone, s (2015) crime, criminality and criminal justice, oxford university. Discusses sociological theories and perspectives that see the causes of crime as stemming from social factors. The theories are considered mainstream in two senses. Sociological theories sociological perspectives: argue that in order to understand the nature and occurrence of crime, we need to look at macro level factors in particular social structure and conditions that mould and shape norms, behaviours. Crime is seen as a manifestation of social pathology e. g. poverty, age, discrimination > According to durkheim (1997), society is comprised of a series of social facts. Society is disciplined and held together by the collective consciousness (shared ideas, beliefs, values that establish society"s moral foundations) It is the collective consciousness that the state derives its authority. He noted two important social pathologies that could disrupt social interaction and lead to social disintegration: anomie and forced division of labour.

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