PSYC 381 Chapter Notes - Chapter 5: Sensory Memory, Cognitive Psychology, Procedural Memory
14 Jun 2018
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Department
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Professor
Define the information processing approach and its three underlying assumptions.
Describe the importance of sensory memory. (pp. 159-160)
The information processing model uses a computer metaphor to explain how
people process stimuli. Information enters the system and is transformed, coded,
and stored in various ways. Information enters storage temporarily, until it
becomes stored permanently. This is based on three underlying assumptions:
1. People are active participants in the process
2. Both quantitative and qualitative aspects of performance can be examined
3. Information is processed through a series of processes
a. Incoming information is transformed based on what the person already knows
about it
b. Researchers look for age differences in both how much information is
processed and what types of information are remembered best under various
conditions
c. Researchers in adult development and aging focus on several specific aspects
of information processing: early aspects and active processing.
Sensory memory is a brief and almost identical representation of the stimuli that
exists in the observable environment. All memories start as sensory stimuli. New
incoming information is first registered in sensory memory. It takes in large
amounts of information rapidly and does not appear to have the limits other
processes do. Unless we pay attention to sensory information, the representation
will be lost quickly. Age differences are not typically found in sensory memory.
1.
What is speed of processing? What are processing resources? What is inhibition,
and what is the evidence for an inhibitory deficit with aging? (pp. 160-161)
-Speed of processing is how quickly and efficiently the early steps in information
processing are completed.
-This is a notion of cognitive psychology.
-The amount of beta-amyloid protein found in the central nervous system has
been related to the degree of processing speeds.
Processing resources refers to the amount of attention one has to apply to a
particular situation. There are two precise approaches to processing resources:
1. Inhibitory loss, which predicts older adults have reduced processing resources
because they have difficulty inhibiting the processing if irrelevant information.
2. Inhibition is the slowing or prevention of a process. Evidence shows that the
oldest-old (85 and older) have more task irrelevant thoughts during processing
and have trouble keeping them out of their minds.
2.
Describe the research on divided attention, and explain what it reveals about
aging. What is automatic processing and effortful processing, and how do they
relate to aging? (pp. 161-162)
-Divided attention concerns how well people perform multiple tasks
simultaneously.
-Evidence has shown that older adults are just as able to multitask but perform
each task a bit more slowly than younger adults.
-Older adults encounter difficulties dividing their attention and their performance
suffers as a result.
-Often older adults prioritize their tasks such as walking or balancing at the
expense of memory. Whereas younger adults ignore walking and balancing.
Automatic processing places minimal demands on attention capacity and gets
information into the system largely without us being aware of it. Some automatic
processes are "pre wired" and require no attentional capacity, and others are
learned through experience. Performance on tasks that depend on automatic
processing do not demonstrate significant age differences.
Effortful processing required all of the available attentional capacity. Most tasks
require deliberate memory, and we are typical aware of what we are doing. Age
differences occur with effortful processing.
3.
Describe the terms below, and summarize the major findings in each area. (pp. 163-167)
Working memory
The active processes and structures involved in holding information
in mind and simultaneously using that information
i.
Evidence shows there is a significant age-related decline in working
memory
ii.
1.
Implicit memory
A type of working memory; implicit (procedural memory) involves
retrieval of information without conscious or intentional recollection
(eg brushing your teeth)
i.
Most research focuses on explicit memory (declines with age)ii.
2.
Long-term memory
Semantic memory - learning and remembering the meaning of words
and concepts not tied to specific occurrences
i.
Episodic memory - general class of memory having to do with
specific events
ii.
Much more of a decline in episodic memoryiii.
3.
Encoding and retrieval
Decrease in encoding processes - most important is changes in
adults' spontaneous use of strategies
i.
Retrieval - older adults tent to spontaneously use fewer retrieval
strategies
ii.
In general, the main reason memory declines with age has to do with
retrieval problems
iii.
4.
4.
What is prospective memory, and how is it affected with age? Describe the
difference between event-based vs. time-based tasks. Provide original examples.
What is autobiographical memory, and what are the findings associated with
age? Provide original examples. (pp. 167-170)
Prospective memory involves remembering to remember
something in the future, such as an action or event. For example,
remembering to pick up your child after school.
-In event based tasks, an action is to be performed when a certain
external event happens, such as driving past the dentist reminds
you that you need to book a cleaning appointment.
-A time based task involves performing an action after a mixed
amount of time, such as remembering to watch your favourite
show at 7:00pm.
Research has shown time based tasks show more age differences as
long as people were using self generated strategies to remember.
Adults of all ages benefited from reminders.
Autobiographical memory involves remembering information and
events from our own life. Autobiographical memory is primarily a
form of episodic memory, although it can involved semantic
memory.
• Autobiographical memories change over time for all adults, with
certain specific details.
Memories that last a lifetime are called flashbulb memories, which
are personally traumatic or unexpected events. It turns out that
regarding flashbulb memories, they are often wrong.
5.
Describe source memory and false memory, and explain the age differences
found in each. Provide original examples. What factors can help to preserve
memory? (pp. 170-172)
Source memory refers to the ability to remember the source of a
familiar event as well as the ability to determine if an event was
imagined or actually experienced.
• Ex. Older adult remembering if they put eye drops in
• Research shows that decrements in performance happen
gradually across the adult life span.
• The difference in this study has to do with when the information
is emotional, in some cases older and younger adults show identical
performance.
False memory is when one remembers items or events that did not
occur.
• Ex. recalling events that happened in a video, that could
potentially have happened, but never was seen.
• Older adults tend to be more susceptible to these issues than
younger adults.
• Older adults have more difficulty separating misleading context
from relevant context.
Specific factors that help preserve memory are called cognitive
reserves. Some of them are:
Exercise:
• Physical fitness training improves cognitive performance in older
adults.
Multilingualism and cognitive functioning:
• Older adults between the age of 75 to 95 who spoke four or more
languages showed the best cognitive state.
Semantic memory in service of episodic memory:
• Older adults perform better when they can use previously learned
semantic information to support episodic knowledge.
Negative stereotypes and memory performance:
Older adults may not perform at optimal levels because they are
aware of and threatened by the typical belief that aging hampers
memory ability.
6.
What are the two types of memory self-evaluation, and what are the reported age
differences in each? Describe memory self-efficacy, and explain why it is
important. (pp. 172-174)
The two types of memory self evaluation are:
Metamemory: involves knowledge about how memory works and what we
believe to be true about it. Ex. we may believe memory declines with age.
Memory monitoring: refers to the awareness of what we are doing with our
memory right now. Ex. we ask ourselves the steps we have taken to remember an
appointment (put note in smartphone.)
Older adults know less than younger adults about the internal workings of
memory, view memory as less stable, expect memory will deteriorate with age
and perceive they have less direct control over memory.
Memory self-efficacy is belief in oneself. Memory self-efficacy emerged as one of
the key aspects of metamemory. Studies show older adults with low memory
self-efficacy perform worse on memory tasks.
Memory monitoring involves knowing what you are doing with your memory
right now. The ability to monitor memory does not decline with age.
7.
Summarize the research on memory training, focusing on external memory aids,
internal memory aids, and memory drugs. (pp. 174-176)
-Memory training can be organized into meaningful groups, among
the most useful is the E-I-E-I-O framework, which combines two
types of memory: explicit and implicit memory, with two types of
memory aids; external and internal aids.
-External aids are memory aids that rely on environmental
resources. Ex. Calendars, notepads
-Internal aids are memory aids that rely on mental processes. Ex.
Forming acronyms
One implicit internal memory aid proven quite powerful is based on
a technique called spaced retrieval. This involves teaching people
with cognitive impairments to remember new information by
gradually increasing the time between retrieval attempts.
Many attempts at enhancing memory through the use of drugs that
affect neurotransmitters have been made, but so far only short
term improvements with no long term changes.
8.
What is the difference between normal and abnormal memory aging? How is
mental and physical health related to memory? How is nutrition related to
memory? (pp. 176-180)
One way to distinguish normal and abnormal changes is to ask whether the
changes disrupt a persons ability to perform daily living tasks. Ex. forgetting
where you parked the car in a big parking lot is a normal part of memory aging.
Forgetting that you drove is an abnormal part.
Damage to the brain resulting from physical or mental health disorders can result
in profound decrements in different types of memory. Damage to the
hippocampus can result in impaired memory between incoming information and
information already in memory. Damage to the medial temporal lobe results in
severe impairments of long term memory.
Adolescents are more likely to show long term effects from concussions than
children or adults.
Evidence points to several compounds in healthy diets essential for well
functioning memory. Flavonoids, found in green tea and blueberries may reverse
age related deficits in spatial memory. Dietary iron intake in midlife has also been
associated with better verbal memory. Several vitamins, especially B vitamins 6,9
and 12 have been associated with memory and other cognitive functions.
9.
L5 - Attention and Memory
Friday, May 25, 2018
11:37 AM
Define the information processing approach and its three underlying assumptions.
Describe the importance of sensory memory. (pp. 159-160)
The information processing model uses a computer metaphor to explain how
people process stimuli. Information enters the system and is transformed, coded,
and stored in various ways. Information enters storage temporarily, until it
becomes stored permanently. This is based on three underlying assumptions:
1. People are active participants in the process
2. Both quantitative and qualitative aspects of performance can be examined
3. Information is processed through a series of processes
a. Incoming information is transformed based on what the person already knows
about it
b. Researchers look for age differences in both how much information is
processed and what types of information are remembered best under various
conditions
c. Researchers in adult development and aging focus on several specific aspects
of information processing: early aspects and active processing.
Sensory memory is a brief and almost identical representation of the stimuli that
exists in the observable environment. All memories start as sensory stimuli. New
incoming information is first registered in sensory memory. It takes in large
amounts of information rapidly and does not appear to have the limits other
processes do. Unless we pay attention to sensory information, the representation
will be lost quickly. Age differences are not typically found in sensory memory.
1.
What is speed of processing? What are processing resources? What is inhibition,
and what is the evidence for an inhibitory deficit with aging? (pp. 160-161)
-Speed of processing is how quickly and efficiently the early steps in information
processing are completed.
-This is a notion of cognitive psychology.
-The amount of beta-amyloid protein found in the central nervous system has
been related to the degree of processing speeds.
Processing resources refers to the amount of attention one has to apply to a
particular situation. There are two precise approaches to processing resources:
1. Inhibitory loss, which predicts older adults have reduced processing resources
because they have difficulty inhibiting the processing if irrelevant information.
2. Inhibition is the slowing or prevention of a process. Evidence shows that the
oldest-old (85 and older) have more task irrelevant thoughts during processing
and have trouble keeping them out of their minds.
2.
Describe the research on divided attention, and explain what it reveals about
aging. What is automatic processing and effortful processing, and how do they
relate to aging? (pp. 161-162)
-Divided attention concerns how well people perform multiple tasks
simultaneously.
-Evidence has shown that older adults are just as able to multitask but perform
each task a bit more slowly than younger adults.
-Older adults encounter difficulties dividing their attention and their performance
suffers as a result.
-Often older adults prioritize their tasks such as walking or balancing at the
expense of memory. Whereas younger adults ignore walking and balancing.
Automatic processing places minimal demands on attention capacity and gets
information into the system largely without us being aware of it. Some automatic
processes are "pre wired" and require no attentional capacity, and others are
learned through experience. Performance on tasks that depend on automatic
processing do not demonstrate significant age differences.
Effortful processing required all of the available attentional capacity. Most tasks
require deliberate memory, and we are typical aware of what we are doing. Age
differences occur with effortful processing.
3.
Describe the terms below, and summarize the major findings in each area. (pp. 163-167)
Working memory
The active processes and structures involved in holding information
in mind and simultaneously using that information
i.
Evidence shows there is a significant age-related decline in working
memory
ii.
1.
Implicit memory
A type of working memory; implicit (procedural memory) involves
retrieval of information without conscious or intentional recollection
(eg brushing your teeth)
i.
Most research focuses on explicit memory (declines with age)
ii.
2.
Long-term memory
Semantic memory - learning and remembering the meaning of words
and concepts not tied to specific occurrences
i.
Episodic memory - general class of memory having to do with
specific events
ii.
Much more of a decline in episodic memory
iii.
3.
Encoding and retrieval
Decrease in encoding processes - most important is changes in
adults' spontaneous use of strategies
i.
Retrieval - older adults tent to spontaneously use fewer retrieval
strategies
ii.
In general, the main reason memory declines with age has to do with
retrieval problems
iii.
4.
4.
What is prospective memory, and how is it affected with age? Describe the
difference between event-based vs. time-based tasks. Provide original examples.
What is autobiographical memory, and what are the findings associated with
age? Provide original examples. (pp. 167-170)
Prospective memory involves remembering to remember
something in the future, such as an action or event. For example,
remembering to pick up your child after school.
-In event based tasks, an action is to be performed when a certain
external event happens, such as driving past the dentist reminds
you that you need to book a cleaning appointment.
-A time based task involves performing an action after a mixed
amount of time, such as remembering to watch your favourite
show at 7:00pm.
Research has shown time based tasks show more age differences as
long as people were using self generated strategies to remember.
Adults of all ages benefited from reminders.
Autobiographical memory involves remembering information and
events from our own life. Autobiographical memory is primarily a
form of episodic memory, although it can involved semantic
memory.
• Autobiographical memories change over time for all adults, with
certain specific details.
Memories that last a lifetime are called flashbulb memories, which
are personally traumatic or unexpected events. It turns out that
regarding flashbulb memories, they are often wrong.
5.
Describe source memory and false memory, and explain the age differences
found in each. Provide original examples. What factors can help to preserve
memory? (pp. 170-172)
Source memory refers to the ability to remember the source of a
familiar event as well as the ability to determine if an event was
imagined or actually experienced.
• Ex. Older adult remembering if they put eye drops in
• Research shows that decrements in performance happen
gradually across the adult life span.
• The difference in this study has to do with when the information
is emotional, in some cases older and younger adults show identical
performance.
False memory is when one remembers items or events that did not
occur.
• Ex. recalling events that happened in a video, that could
potentially have happened, but never was seen.
• Older adults tend to be more susceptible to these issues than
younger adults.
• Older adults have more difficulty separating misleading context
from relevant context.
Specific factors that help preserve memory are called cognitive
reserves. Some of them are:
Exercise:
• Physical fitness training improves cognitive performance in older
adults.
Multilingualism and cognitive functioning:
• Older adults between the age of 75 to 95 who spoke four or more
languages showed the best cognitive state.
Semantic memory in service of episodic memory:
• Older adults perform better when they can use previously learned
semantic information to support episodic knowledge.
Negative stereotypes and memory performance:
Older adults may not perform at optimal levels because they are
aware of and threatened by the typical belief that aging hampers
memory ability.
6.
What are the two types of memory self-evaluation, and what are the reported age
differences in each? Describe memory self-efficacy, and explain why it is
important. (pp. 172-174)
The two types of memory self evaluation are:
Metamemory: involves knowledge about how memory works and what we
believe to be true about it. Ex. we may believe memory declines with age.
Memory monitoring: refers to the awareness of what we are doing with our
memory right now. Ex. we ask ourselves the steps we have taken to remember an
appointment (put note in smartphone.)
Older adults know less than younger adults about the internal workings of
memory, view memory as less stable, expect memory will deteriorate with age
and perceive they have less direct control over memory.
Memory self-efficacy is belief in oneself. Memory self-efficacy emerged as one of
the key aspects of metamemory. Studies show older adults with low memory
self-efficacy perform worse on memory tasks.
Memory monitoring involves knowing what you are doing with your memory
right now. The ability to monitor memory does not decline with age.
7.
Summarize the research on memory training, focusing on external memory aids,
internal memory aids, and memory drugs. (pp. 174-176)
-Memory training can be organized into meaningful groups, among
the most useful is the E-I-E-I-O framework, which combines two
types of memory: explicit and implicit memory, with two types of
memory aids; external and internal aids.
-External aids are memory aids that rely on environmental
resources. Ex. Calendars, notepads
-Internal aids are memory aids that rely on mental processes. Ex.
Forming acronyms
One implicit internal memory aid proven quite powerful is based on
a technique called spaced retrieval. This involves teaching people
with cognitive impairments to remember new information by
gradually increasing the time between retrieval attempts.
Many attempts at enhancing memory through the use of drugs that
affect neurotransmitters have been made, but so far only short
term improvements with no long term changes.
8.
What is the difference between normal and abnormal memory aging? How is
mental and physical health related to memory? How is nutrition related to
memory? (pp. 176-180)
One way to distinguish normal and abnormal changes is to ask whether the
changes disrupt a persons ability to perform daily living tasks. Ex. forgetting
where you parked the car in a big parking lot is a normal part of memory aging.
Forgetting that you drove is an abnormal part.
Damage to the brain resulting from physical or mental health disorders can result
in profound decrements in different types of memory. Damage to the
hippocampus can result in impaired memory between incoming information and
information already in memory. Damage to the medial temporal lobe results in
severe impairments of long term memory.
Adolescents are more likely to show long term effects from concussions than
children or adults.
Evidence points to several compounds in healthy diets essential for well
functioning memory. Flavonoids, found in green tea and blueberries may reverse
age related deficits in spatial memory. Dietary iron intake in midlife has also been
associated with better verbal memory. Several vitamins, especially B vitamins 6,9
and 12 have been associated with memory and other cognitive functions.
9.
L5 - Attention and Memory
Friday, May 25, 2018 11:37 AM
Document Summary
Define the information processing approach and its three underlying assumptions. The information processing model uses a computer metaphor to explain how people process stimuli. Information enters the system and is transformed, coded, and stored in various ways. Information enters storage temporarily, until it becomes stored permanently. Sensory memory is a brief and almost identical representation of the stimuli that exists in the observable environment. New incoming information is first registered in sensory memory. It takes in large amounts of information rapidly and does not appear to have the limits other processes do. Unless we pay attention to sensory information, the representation will be lost quickly. Age differences are not typically found in sensory memory. What is inhibition, and what is the evidence for an inhibitory deficit with aging? (pp. Speed of processing is how quickly and efficiently the early steps in information processing are completed.
