TEXTBOOK SUMMARY
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology
• Combines four subfields that bridge the natural sciences, the social sciences, and the humanities
• These four subfields—physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistic anthropology, and cultural
anthropology or ethnology = a broad approach to the study of humanity the world over, both past and
present
• Initially emerged in Western society in an attempt to understand nonWestern peoples and sought to
answer basic differences and similarities of human societies and cultures and with the physical variation
found in peoples throughout the world today
• Today, anthropologists do not solely focus on nonWestern cultures, and are as likely to examine
cultural practices in an urban setting as to some far off place
Physical Anthropology
• Concerned with humans as a biological species
• Subfield most closely related to the natural sciences
• Conduct research in two major areas: human evolution and modern human variation
• Fossils, the fragmentary remains of bones and living materials preserved from earlier periods
• The study of human evolution through analysis of fossils is called paleoanthropology (prefix paleo
means “old” or “prehistoric”)
o Use a variety of scientific techniques to date, classify, and compare fossil bones to determine the
links between modern humans and their biological ancestors
o May work closely with archaeologists to learn about the behavior of early human ancestors
• Some explore human evolution through primatology, the study of primates
o Primates= mammals that belong to the same overall biological classification as humans (=share
similar physical characteristics with us)
o Observations of living primates may provide insight into the behaviors of early human ancestors
• Others focus their research on the range of physical variation within and among different modern human
populations
o Study human variation by measuring physical characteristics—body size, variation in blood
types, or differences in skin color— or various genetic traits
o Aims at explaining why such variation occurs, as well as documenting the differences in human
populations
• Human osteology= specialization dealing with the study of the human skeleton
o Identification of murder victims from fragmentary skeletal remains to the design of ergonomic
airplane cockpits
• Genetics= the study of the biological “blueprints” that dictate the inheritance of physical characteristics
o Important in identifying the genetic sources of some diseases, such as sickle cell anemia, cystic
fibrosis and TaySachs disease
o Increasingly important complement to paleoanthropological research to calculating the genetic
distance among modem humans, thus providing a means of inferring rates of evolution and the
evolutionary relationships within the species
Archeology
• The branch of anthropology that examines the material traces of past societies, informs us about the
culture of those societies—the shared way of life of a group of people that includes their values, beliefs,
and norms
o Usually consists of methodical, timeconsuming and somewhat tedious research o Often spend hours sorting through ancient trash piles, or middens, to discover how members of
past societies ate their meals, what tools they used in their households and in their work, and
what beliefs gave meaning to their lives
• Artifacts= the material products of former societies provide clues to the past
• Some archaeologists investigate past societies whose history is primarily told by the archaeological
record= prehistoric archaeologists
o They study the artifacts of groups such as the ancient inhabitants of Europe and the first humans
to arrive in the Americas (have no written documents o; or oral traditions to help interpret the
sites they examine)
• Historical archaeologists work with historians in investigating the artifacts of societies of the more
recent past
• Other archaeologists, called classical archaeologists, conduct research on ancient civilizations such as
in Egypt, Greece, and Rome
• Ethnoarchaeology is the study of material artifacts of the past along with the observation of modern
peoples who have knowledge of the use and symbolic meaning of those artifacts
• Other fields of archaeology include industrial archaeologists, biblical archaeologists, medieval and
postmedieval archaeologists, and Islamic archaeologists. Underwater archaeologists work on a variety
of places and time periods throughout the world; they are distinguished from other archeologists by the
distinctive equipment, methods, I procedures needed to excavate underwater
• GIS (Geographical Information Systems), a tool archaeologists can use to link to satellites to help
locate specific transportation routes used by peoples and their animals in the past as well as many other
patterns
Linguistic Anthropology
• The study of language is known as linguistics
• Linguistic anthropology focuses on the relationship between language and culture, how language is
used within society, and how the human brain acquires and uses language
• Structural linguistics explores how language works and compares grammatical patterns or other
linguistic elements to learn how contemporary languages mirror and differ from one another
• Linguistic anthropologists also examine the connections between language and social behavior in
different cultures. This specialty is called sociolinguistics= how language is used to define social groups
and in how belonging to particular groups leads to specialized kinds of language use
• Historical linguistics concentrates on the comparison and classification of different languages to
discern the historical links among languages able to discover rules for how languages change over time,
as well as which languages are related to one another historically
Cultural Anthropology/Ethnography
• Cultural anthropology or ethnology is the subfield of anthropology that examines various
contemporary societies and cultures throughout the worldtoday many have turned to research on their
own cultures in order to gain a better understanding of their institutions/cultural values
o Conduct their fieldwork in different settings= participant observation learn the language and
culture of the group being studied by participating in the group’s daily activities
• The results of the fieldwork of the cultural anthropologist are written up as an ethnography, a
description of a culture within a society
o Reports on the environmental setting, economic patterns, social organization, political system,
and religions rituals and beliefs of the society=ethnographic data
o Ethnologist refers to anthropologists who focus on the crosscultural aspects of the various
ethnographic studies done by cultural anthropologistsanalyze the data to produce crosscultural
generalizations about humanity and cultures
Applied Anthropology • Applied anthropology is the use of anthropological data from the other subfields to address modern
problems and concernsmay be environmental, technological, economic, social, political, or cultural
• Each of the four major subfields of anthropology has applied aspects
Holistic Anthropology, Interdisciplinary Research, and the Global Perspective
• Anthropologists usually specialize in one of the four subfields
• Firmly committed to a holistic approach to understanding humankind—a broad, comprehensive
account that draws on all four subfields under the umbrella of anthropology
• Involves the analysis of biological, environmental, psychological, economic, historical, social, and
cultural conditions of humanity
• Study the physical characteristics of humans, including their genetic endowment, as well as their
prehistoric, historical, and social and cultural environments
• Anthropology does not limit itself to its own four subfields cultural anthropologists and sociologists
explore many of the same societies using similar research approaches
o Cultural anthropology also overlaps the fields of psychology, economics, and political science
• The global perspective enables anthropologists to consider the biological, environmental,
psychological, economic, historical, social, and cultural conditions of humans at all times and in all
places
o Do not limit themselves to understanding a particular society or set of societies, but attempt to
go beyond specific among societies throughout the world
Anthropological Explanations
• Human knowledge is rooted in personal experience, as well as in the beliefs, traditions, and norms
maintained by the societies in which people live including assumptions (cold=more clothes), notions
about how food should be prepared, what constitutes “appropriate” behavior, and what the appropriate
social and cultural roles are for men and women and religion
• Popular perceptions about other cultures have often been based on ethnocentric attitudes.
Ethnocentrism the practice of judging another society by the values and standards of one’s own
society universal phenomenon
The Scientific Method
• Anthropologists employ the scientific method, a system of logic used to evaluate data derived from
systematic observation
o Rely upon the scientific method to investigate both the natural and the social worlds because the
approach allows them to make claims about knowledge and to verify those claims with
systematic, logical reasoning
• Testability and verifiability lie at the core of the scientific method. There are two ways of developing
testable propositions: the inductive method and the deductive method
o Inductive method, the scientist first takes observations and collects data called variables
o A variable is any piece of data that changes from case to case
o A hypothesis is a testable proposition concerning the relationship between particular sets of
variables in the collected data
Poor hypotheses are rejected and replaced by better explanations by drawing on
independent lines of evidence to support and evaluate theories
o Theories are statements that explain hypotheses and observations about natural or social
phenomena often encompass a variety of hypotheses and observations
Theories may be invalidated or falsified by contradictory observations
o The deductive method begins with a general theory from which scientists develop testable
hypotheses Dataare then collected to evaluate these hypotheses
o Initial hypotheses are sometimes referred to as “guesstimates” because they may be based on
guesswork by the scientistThese hypotheses are tested through experimentation and replication
Anthropology and the Humanities • Anthropologists also employ a more humanisticinterpretive approach as they study cultures
o EXAMPLE: When botanists examine a flower, they attempt to understand the different
components of the plant within a scientific framework; they analyze the biochemical and
physical aspects of the flower. However, when painters, poets, or novelists perceive a flower,
they understand the slant from an aesthetic standpoint. They might interpret the flower as a
symbolic phenomenon that represents nature
o The scientist and the humanist use different app roaches and perspectives when examining the
natural world
• Cultural anthropologists utilize the humanisticinterpretive method as they conduct ethnographic
research try to employ these same methods when examining artifacts from ancient societies “soft
focus” vs “hard light” to comprehend different practices, institutions and interpret these phenomena
• In addition to its interconnections with the natural and social sciences, the discipline of anthropology is
aligned with the humanistic fields of inquiry
o When participating in the life and experience of people in various societies, ethnographers must
confront a multitude of different behaviors md values that may have to be translated and
interpreted
• Ethnopoetics is the study of poetry and how it relates to the experiences of people in different societies
• Ethnomusicology is devoted to the study of musical traditions in various societies throughout the world
o Ethnomusicologists record and analyze music and the traditions that give rise to musical
expression, exploring similarities and differences in musical performance and composition
• One fundamental difference exists between the scientific and the humanisticinterpretive aspects of
anthropology
o Science has produced a cumulative increase in its knowledge base through its methodology
significant progress, more effective
o Myth, literature, music, and poetry have not progressed in the way that scientific explanations
have
• When anthropologists combine the scientific and humanistic approaches, hey can discover what is
transcultural and universal and what is unique to specific societies
o This is the major goal of anthropological research to determine the similarity I differences of
humans in the past and the present
Critical Thinking and Global Awareness
• Anthropology and anthropological research cultivate critical thinking skills
• Anthropology also creates an expanding global awareness and an appreciation for cultures other than
our own
• Promotes a crosscultural perspective that allows usto le ourselves as part of one human family in the
midst of tremendous diversity
A Sideline: Pseudoarchaeology
• Pseudoarchaeology is all the rage in a world where many people are fascinated by adventure, escapism,
and space fiction
• A distinctive literary genre tells compelling tales of a longlost past
• Pseudoarchaeology appeals to people who are impatient with the deliberate pace of science and who
like to believe that “there is always a faint possibility that…”
• The theories espoused by the leaders become articles of faith, the object of personal conversion
Archaeology and Human Diversity
• Archaeology’s unique ability lies in its capacity to reach back over the millennia to reconstruct and
explain the cultures and lifeways of unimaginably ancient societies as they changed over many centuries
and thousands of years.
• Enables us to study not only the remotest human origins but also the everchanging biological and
cultural diversity of humankind. • Archeology teaches us is that we are all descended from “a common African twig.”
o Charles Darwin theorized that humanity originated in Africa, because this was where the
greatest variety of apes dwelt
o Both archaeology and DNA studies have shown that the relationships among all modern humans
are closer than they are different
• Human artifacts are excellent barometers not only of ancient behavior but also of cultural diversity
Archaeology as a Political Tool
• Rulers and governments have used the past to justify the present since civilization began
• The past has always served the present, for every society manufactures history
• We all bring our individual cultural biases to the study of history and archaeology, for we tend to look at
past developments and events through the blinkered eyes of our own value system and society
• Any archaeological interpretation of the past is a form of narrative, which, by the nature of its evidence,
is both a scientific and political or literary enterprise.
• Archaeology is peculiarly vulnerable to political misuse because it deals with ancient societies and
events that are little known, even from archaeological sources.
• Archaeology, with its extended time perspectives, has added entire new chapters to human history in
areas of the world where written records go back little more than a century.
o Write unwritten history as a way of fostering national identity not from archives and documents
but from longabandoned villages and rubbish heaps, the material remains of the past.
Archaeology and Economic Development
• After months of ground survey, excavation, and controlled farming experiments, archaeologists had
rediscovered the forgotten genius of ancient Andean farmers for the benefit of their descendants
o The ancestors had used water to protect their crops against frost
o Today, more than 1,500 modern farmers have rediscovered the benefits of raised fields
• Archaeology shows how the traditional system has manyadvantageshigh crop yields, no need for
fertilizer, and muchreduced risks of frost or flood damage.
o The ancients knew their environments intimately and exploited them efficiently without
expensive twentiethcentury technology
• “Garbagology” has much to tell us about the discard habits of modern industrial society
The Prehistory of Humankind According to Archaeologists
• Prehistory, the human past before written records, covers an enormous span of time, starting more than
2.5 million years ago with the emergence of the first tool making hominins (humanlike beings) in East
Africa and extending right into modern times
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