PSYC 2450 Chapter Notes - Chapter 13: James Marcia, Identity Formation, 6 Years
29 Jun 2018
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Chapter 13 Development of the Self and Social Cognition 1
Chapter 13
Development of the Self and Social Cognition
Chapter 13 Outline and Summary
Development of the Self-Concept
1. Self-Differentiation in Infancy
Two-month-old infants may have some limited sense of personal agency; to some extent they
understand that they are able to produce or cause external events. However, they will not
show evidence of self-recognition (and consequently self-awareness) for at least another 12
to 18 months.
2. Self-Recognition in Infancy
The development of self-recognition can be tested using a “rouge test.” When children under
the age of 15 months are given this test they show no evidence of self-recognition. By the
age of 15 to 17 months a few children will show self-recognition, but it is not until the last
part of the sensorimotor stage (18 to 24 months) that the majority of infants show evidence
of self-recognition on this test. By this age many toddlers can also recognize themselves in
current photographs. Once self-recognition is evident, children begin to categorize
themselves along a variety of dimensions. This represents the emergence of the “categorical
self.” However, children at this age are still not fully aware that the self is stable over time.
A certain level of cognitive development appears to be necessary for the development of
self-recognition, but social experiences are also important. On tests of self-knowledge
securely attached toddlers outperform their insecurely attached age-mates, and the
differences in self-knowledge between these two groups increase over time. Parents
contribute to the child’s self-concept by giving them descriptive information about
themselves (“You are a kind girl”) and by helping them construct autobiographical memories
that depict the self as being stable over time. These experiences with parents help children
develop an understanding of the extended self—where children integrate past, current, and
future self-representations into a notion of a “self” that endures over time.
3. Who am I? Responses of Preschool Children
When preschool children describe themselves they tend to talk about physical attributes,
possessions, or actions that they feel proud of; they rarely use psychological descriptors.
However, research by Rebecca Eder suggests that preschool children have the rudiments of
psychological self-awareness; they just lack the ability to express this knowledge using trait-
like terminology.
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Chapter 13 Development of the Self and Social Cognition 2
4. Conceptions of Self in Middle Childhood and Adolescence
In middle childhood, children’s self-descriptions begin to shift from listing their physical or
behavioural attributes to listing their inner qualities. In adolescence these self-descriptions
begin to include more abstract qualities. By adolescence children are also beginning to
recognize that they are sometimes “different” people in different situations; early adolescents
may be troubled by these perceived inconsistencies in their behaviour. For older adolescents
inconsistencies in personal traits across different situations, or in the presence of different
groups of people, are less troublesome and are more likely to be integrated into a coherent
self-concept.
5. Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept
An important contributor to the development of self-concept is culture. Research shows that
individualistic societies foster self-concepts that are based on individualistic attributes, such
as independence, whereas collectivistic cultures foster self-concepts that emphasize social
connections.
Who am I to be? Forging an Identity
Forming an identity involves exploring alternatives and making a firm commitment to an
occupation, a religious ideology, a sexual orientation, and a set of political values. In each of
these areas individuals can be classified into one of four identity statuses that reflect the degree
to which an individual has considered or explored options and has made a commitment to a
particular alternative.
Individuals in a state of identify diffusion have not really contemplated any alternatives and
consequently have not yet made a commitment to any particular alternative; they are individuals
who lack direction in one or more areas that make up a personal identity. Individuals in a state of
foreclosure have made firm commitments, but they have done so without exploring alternatives
or options; often these individuals “borrow” or “adopt” an identity based on choices made by
family members or role models.
Individuals in a state of moratorium are currently in the midst of exploring their options; they
have not yet made a commitment but are in the process of actively seeking answers to their
questions. Finally, individuals in a state of identity achievement have made a commitment to a
set of goals, beliefs, or values after actively questioning and exploring a number of options and
alternatives.
1. Developmental Trends in Identity Formation
Erikson assumed that, during the adolescent years (the stage of identity versus role
confusion), identity issues were dealt with and resolved. However, subsequent research,
utilizing the categories identified by James Marcia, has indicated that the majority of
individuals do not begin to actively question different aspects of their identity until the early
adult years. This pattern applies to both males and females; however, women appear to
attach greater importance to the aspects of identity that focus on sexuality, gender roles, and
the issue of how to balance career and family goals.
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Chapter 13 Development of the Self and Social Cognition 3
Even when identity issues are successfully resolved during late adolescence or the early adult
years, in middle or late adulthood people may find themselves once again questioning some
aspects of their identity. Also, identity statuses can vary across different aspects of identity.
When Sally Archer assessed identity statuses in terms of occupation, gender-role attitudes,
religious beliefs, and political ideologies, she found that 95 percent of those she tested were
in different phases of identity achievement across the four areas.
2. Identity Formation and Adjustment
It doesn’t appear that the formation of an identity is a time of “crisis.” As a matter of fact,
adolescents in the moratorium phase of identity formation feel better about themselves than
do peers who are still in diffusion or peers who are in foreclosure. The most negative aspects
of identity seeking are seen in individuals who remain in a state of identity diffusion. These
individuals often have low self-esteem and express a sense of hopelessness about the future.
3. Influences on Identity Formation
The four factors that have the greatest influence on identity formation are the individual’s
level of cognitive development, the type of parenting the individual experiences, the level of
education the individual attains, and the broader social-cultural context that the individual
experiences.
Individuals who achieve a solid mastery of formal-operational thought are more likely to
resolve identity issues. Also, adolescents who experience a democratic style of parenting,
which allows them the freedom to disagree with their parents, are more likely to reach
identity achievement. Attending university can help push an individual toward a firm
occupational commitment. However, the new ideas and questioning that a person
experiences in university settings can sometimes push individuals back into moratorium or
diffusion with respect to their religious or political identities. Finally, identity formation is
strongly influenced by the broader social-cultural context that an individual experiences as
he or she is growing up. Today’s adolescents and young adults have more options to choose
from for occupational pursuits. New occupations are emerging at a rapid rate, and offer
increasingly diverse opportunities. On the other hand, these processes have produced
changes in the nature of some occupations that may make it difficult for adolescents who had
been planning to follow in their parents’ “footsteps.”
Self-Esteem: The Evaluative Component of Self
1. Origins and Development of Self-Esteem
By the age of 4 or 5 children are already showing evidence of self-evaluation. Compared to
children who have insecure attachments with their parents, children with secure attachments,
especially to both parents, are much more likely to view themselves favourably. Children
with secure attachments are also rated by others as being more competent and more socially
skilled.
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Document Summary
Development of the self-concept: self-differentiation in infancy. Two-month-old infants may have some limited sense of personal agency; to some extent they understand that they are able to produce or cause external events. However, they will not show evidence of self-recognition (and consequently self-awareness) for at least another 12 to 18 months: self-recognition in infancy. The development of self-recognition can be tested using a rouge test. when children under the age of 15 months are given this test they show no evidence of self-recognition. By this age many toddlers can also recognize themselves in current photographs. Once self-recognition is evident, children begin to categorize themselves along a variety of dimensions. This represents the emergence of the categorical self. however, children at this age are still not fully aware that the self is stable over time. A certain level of cognitive development appears to be necessary for the development of self-recognition, but social experiences are also important.
