RSM260H1 Chapter Notes - Chapter 5: Motivation, Integrative Thinking, Verbal Behavior
17 May 2018
School
Department
Course
Professor
the$need$for$increased$productivity$for$organizations$to$be$globally$
competitive.$
•
Before:$stable$system
○
Now:$flexible$⇒$need$motivation
○
It$is$also$a$result$of$the$rapid$changes$that$contemporary$organizations$
are$undergoing.$
•
WHY$STUDY$MOTIVATION?$
The$extent$to$which$persistent$effort$is$directed$toward$a$goal.$
§
Motivation
○
the$strength$ of$the$person’s$ work-related$behaviour
§
EFFORT
○
the$persistence$ that$individuals$exhibit$in$applying$effort$to$
their$work$tasks
§
PERSISTENCE
○
direction$of$the$person’s$work-related$behaviour.$
§
In$other$words,$do$workers$channel$persistent$effort$in$a$
direction$that$benefits$the$organization
§
E.g.$Employers$expect$motivated$software$designers$to$design$
software,$not$play$computer$games
§
DIRECTION
○
GOALS
○
Basic$Characteristics$of$Motivation
•
Motivation$that$stems$from$the$direct$relationship$ between$
the$worker$and$the$task;$it$is$usually$self-applied.
§
e.g. achievement
§
Intrinsic$motivation.$
○
Motivation$that$stems$from$the$work$environment$external$to$
the$task;$it$is$usually$applied$by$others.$
§
E.g.$Pay
§
Extrinsic$motivation.$
○
E.g.$a$promotion$or$a$compliment$
§
some$motivators$have$both$extrinsic$and$intrinsic$qualities
○
But$is$can$be$avoided$
§
when$extrinsic$rewards$depend$on$performance,$then$the$
motivating$potential$of$intrinsic$rewards$decreases
○
Extrinsic$and$Intrinsic$Motivation
•
The$extent$to$which$an$organizational$member$contributes$to$
achieving$the$objectives$of$the$organization.$
§
Performance.$
○
○
intelligence$or$mental$ability
□
cognitive)ability)
§
A$person’s$ basic$information-processing$capacities$and$
cognitive$resources.$
□
General$cognitive$ability.$
§
E.g.$verbal,$numerical,$spatial
§
Measured$by$test
§
GENERAL$COGNITIVE$ABILITY$
○
The$ability$to$understand$and$manage$one’s$own$and$other’s$
feelings$and$emotions.$
§
E.g.$ability$to$perceive$and$express$emotion
§
□
E.g.$identify$emotions$in$people’s$faces$and$in$non-
verbal$behaviour
®
Perceiving$emotions$accurately$in$oneself$and$others:
□
E.g.$making$decisions,$creativity,$integrative$
thinking,
®
Using$emotions$to$facilitate$thinking
□
people$understand$how$different$situations$ and$
events$generate$ emotions$as$well$as$how$they$and$
others$are$influenced$by$various$emotions
®
E.g.$don’t$ask$question$to$an$angry$person$
®
Understanding$emotions,$emotional$language,$and$the$
signals$conveyed$by$emotions:
□
an$individual$is$able$to$regulate,$adjust,$and$change$
his$or$her$own$emotions$as$well$as$others’$
emotions$to$suit$the$situation.
®
Managing$emotions$so$as$to$attain$specific$goals
□
EI$model
§
EMOTIONAL$INTELLIGENCE$(EI)
○
Motivation$and$Performance
•
Motivation$doesn’t$guarantee$ high$performance
○
The$Motivation–Performance$Relationship$
•
WHAT$IS$MOTIVATION?$
Motivation$theories$that$specify$the$kinds$of$needs$people$have$and$
the$conditions$under$which$they$will$be$motivated$to$satisfy$these$
needs$in$a$way$that$contributes$to$performance.$
○
NEEDS$→$BEHAVIOUR$→$INCENTIVES$AND$GOALS$
§
behaviour$stimulated
○
○
Need$theory:$concerned$with$what$motivates$workers$
§
concerned$with$exactly$how$various$factors$motivate$
people
□
Process$theories:$
§
Need$and$process$theories$
○
Need$theories
•
needs$that$must$be$satisfi$ed$for$the$person$to$survive
□
E.g.$food
□
Physiological$needsi.
needs$for$security,$stability,$freedom$from$anxiety,$and$a$
structured$and$ordered$environment
□
E.g.$safe$working$conditions,$job$security,$a$comfortable$
work$environment
□
Safety$needsii.
needs$for$social$interaction,$affection,$love,$
companionship,$and$friendship.
□
E.g.$opportunity$to$interact$with$others$on$the$job,$
friendly$and$supportive$supervision,$opportunity$for$
teamwork
□
Belongingness$ needsiii.
E.g.$awards,$promotions,$prestigious$job$titles
□
Esteem$needs.iv.
people$have$clear$perceptions$of$reality,$accept$
themselves$and$others,$and$appreciative$of$the$world$
around$them.$
□
E.g.$jobs$with$the$potential$for$creativity$and$growth
□
Self-actualization$needs.v.
A$five-level$hierarchical$need$theory$of$motivation$that$specifies$that$
the$lowest-level$unsatisfied$need$has$the$greatest$motivating$
potential.$
○
motivation$depends$on$the$person’s$position$in$the$need$
hierarchy
§
none$of$the$needs$ is$a$“best”$motivator;$
○
these$were$“growth”$needs$that$become$stronger$as$they$
are$gratified.$
□
Exception:$self-actualization$needs
§
A$satisfied$need$is$no$longer$an$effective$motivator
○
Maslow’s$Hierarchy$of$Needs$
•
needs$that$are$satisfied$by$some$material$substance$or$
condition.
□
Close$to$Maslow’s$physiological$needs$and$safety$needs
□
Existence$needs.$i.
satisfied$by$open$communication$and$the$exchange$of$
thoughts$and$feelings$with$other$organizational$
members
□
Close$to$
□
Maslow’s$belongingness$ needs$and$esteem$needs$ that$
involve$feedback$from$others
relatedness$ needs$are$satisfi$ed$by$open,$accurate,$
honest$interaction$rather$than$by$uncritical$
pleasantness
®
Unlike$Maslow
□
Relatedness$ needsii.
fulfilled$by$strong$personal$involvement$in$the$work$
setting.$
□
Close$to$Maslow’s$need$for$self-actualization$and$the$
aspects$of$his$esteem$needs$that$concern$achievement$
and$responsibility
□
the$least$concrete$needs
□
become$more$compelling$and$more$desired$as$they$are$
fulfilled.
□
Growth$needsiii.
three$categories:$
○
as$more$“concrete”$needs$are$satisfied,$energy$can$be$
directed$toward$satisfying$less$concrete$needs
□
as$lower-level$needs$are$satisfied,$the$desire$to$have$higher-
level$needs$satisfied$will$increase.$
§
Like$Maslow
○
ERG$theory$does$not$assume$that$a$lower-level$need$must$be$
gratified$before$a$less$concrete$need$becomes$operative.
§
E.g.$a$software$designer$who$is$unable$to$socialize$with$
his$co-workers$might$increase$his$interest$in$a$pay$
increase
□
an$apparently$satisfied$need$can$act$as$a$motivator$by$
substituting$for$an$unsatisfied$need
§
Unlike$Maslow
○
Alderfer’s$ERG$Theory
•
A$nonhierarchical$need$theory$of$motivation$that$outlines$the$
conditions$under$which$certain$needs$result$in$particular$
patterns$of$motivation.
§
McClelland’s$theory$of$needs.$
○
A$strong$desire$to$perform$challenging$tasks$well.$
§
A$preference$for$situations$in$which$personal$
responsibility$can$be$taken$for$outcomes
□
A$tendency$to$set$moderately$difficult$goals$that$provide$
for$calculated$risks
□
A$desire$for$performance$feedback
□
Characteristics$
§
But$it$doesn’t$mean$to$to$please$or$damage$ the$interests$
of$others
□
It$is$because$they$are$intrinsically$satisfying
□
∴$n$Ach$is$an$example$of$a$growth$or$self-actualization$
need
□
People$with$high$n$Ach$tries$to$go$beyond$others$
§
Salesperson$
□
Entrepreneur$$
□
Suited$Job
§
Need$for$achievement$(n$Ach)
○
i.e.$they$like$to$like$others,$and$they$want$others$to$like$
them
□
A$strong$desire$to$establish$and$maintain$friendly,$compatible$
interpersonal$relationships.$
§
learn$social$networking$quickly
□
communicate$frequently$with$others,
□
avoid$conflict$and$competition
□
Characteristics$
§
An$example$of$a$belongingness$ or$relatedness$need.$
§
Social$work$
□
Customer$relations
□
Suited$job
§
high$in$need)for)affiliation (n$Aff$)
○
A$strong$desire$to$influence$others,$making$a$significant$
impact$or$impression.$
§
attention-getting$manner
□
advocate$risky$positions
□
concern$for$personal$prestige
□
Characteristics$
§
An$example$of$Maslow’s$self-esteem$need.
§
Effective$managers$have$a$low$need$for$affiliation,$a$high$need$
for$power
§
Journalism$
□
Management$
□
Suited$job
§
high$in$need)for)power (n$Pow)
○
McClelland’s$Theory$of$Needs$
•
needs$should$cluster$into$the$five$main$need$categories$
§
as$the$needs$they$should$become$less$important,$while$the$
needs$in$the$adjacent$higher-need$ category$should$become$
more$important
§
Two$main$Hypotheses$of$Maslow
○
However,$there$is$fair$support$for$Alderfer’s$ERG$theory
§
And$good$support$for$$McClelland’s$need$theory$
§
research$support$for$both$these$hypotheses$is$weak$or$negative.$
○
Research$Support$for$Need$Theories$
•
managers$ must$offer$incentives$or$goals$that$correspond$to$
their$needs
§
APPRECIATE$DIVERSITY$
○
One$of$the$basic$conditions$for$organizational$survival$is$the$
expression$of$some$creative$and$innovative$behaviour$on$the$
part$of$members
§
This$can$lead$to$a$vicious$motivational$cycle
□
Administers use$low-level$needs$to$gratify$employees$
(pay)$→$deprived$of$higher-order$need$gratification$→$
expect$more$and$more$extrinsic$factors$→$more$pay$→$
more$expect$to$be$paid$
□
great$cost$to$the$organization
□
the$frustration$of$higher-order$needs$prompts$demands$ for$
greater$satisfaction$of$lower-order$needs.$
§
E.g.$safe$working$conditions
®
lower-level$needs$are$reasonably$well$gratified.
□
to$provide$feelings$of$responsibility$and$
achievement
®
jobs$can$be$“enriched”$to$be$more$stimulating$ and$
challenging$
□
challenge$workers’$higher-order$needs.$
®
organizations$could$pay$more$attention$to$designing$
career$paths$
□
How$to$benefit$from$intrinsic$motivation?
§
APPRECIATE$INTRINSIC$MOTIVATION
○
Managerial$Implications$of$Need$Theories
•
NEED$THEORIES$OF$WORK$MOTIVATION$
makes$a$distinction$between$autonomous$(or$self-determined)$
motivation$and$controlled$(or$not$self-determined)$ motivation
•
A$theory$of$motivation$that$considers$whether$people’s$motivation$
is$autonomous$or$controlled.
○
Self-determination$theory
•
Self-motivation$or$intrinsic$motivation$that$occurs$when$people$feel$
they$are$in$control$of$their$motivation.$
○
They$do$because$they$want$to
○
Autonomous$motivation.$
•
Motivation$that$is$externally controlled,$such$as$when$one$is$
motivated$to$obtain$a$desired$consequence$or$extrinsic$reward.$
○
individuals$feel$they$are$pressured$ and$have$no$choice$but$to$engage$
in$a$task
○
e.g. psychological$distress$and$turnover$intentions
§
controlled$motivation$is$associated$with$negative$outcomes,$
○
Controlled$motivation.$
•
self-determination$theory$posits$that$needs$are$not$hierarchical$
○
and$people$do$not$differ$in$the$strength$of$particular$needs.$
○
unlike$the$need$theories$
•
○
competence,$autonomy,$and$relatedness.
○
their$motivation$will$be$autonomous
§
If$not,$motivation$will$be$controlled
§
When$these$needs$are$met,$
○
three$basic$psychological$needs$
•
Providing$employees$with$choice$and$encouragement$for$
personal$initiative.
§
Autonomy$support.$
○
Research$Support$for$and$Managerial$Implications$of$Self-Determination$
Theory$
•
SELF-DETERMINATION$THEORY$
Motivation$theories$that$specify$the$details$of$how$motivation$
occurs.$
○
Process$theories.$
•
○
A$process$theory$that$states$that$motivation$is$determined$by$the$
outcomes$that$people$expect$to$occur$as$a$result$of$their$actions$on$
the$job.$
○
Consequences$that$follow$work$behaviour.$
§
Expectancy$theory$is$concerned$with$specifying$how$an$
employee$might$attempt$to$choose$one$first-level$outcome$
instead$of$another.
§
are$most$personally$relevant$to$the$individual$worker
□
consequences$that$follow$the$attainment$of$a$particular$
fi$rst-level$outcome
□
second-level$outcomes$
§
Outcomes.$
○
The$probability$that$a$particular first-level$outcome$will$be$
followed$by$a$particular$second-level$outcome.$
§
this$is$also$known$as$the$performance$→ outcome$link
§
E.g.$a$bank$teller$might$figure$that$the$odds$are$50/50$
(instrumentality$=$.5)$that$a$good$performance$rating$will$
result$in$a$pay$raise
§
Instrumentality.$
○
The$expected$value$of$work$outcomes;$the$extent$to$which$
they$are$attractive$or$unattractive.
§
e.g. good$pay,$peer$acceptance,$the$possibility$of$being$fi$red,$
or$any$other$second-level$outcome$might$be$more$or$less$
attractive$to$particular$workers.
§
□
the$valence$of$first-level$outcomes$is$the$sum$of$products$of$
the$associated$second-level$outcomes$and$their$
instrumentalities—that$ is,$
§
Valence.$
○
effort$→performance$link
□
The$probability$that$a$particular$first-level$outcome$can$be$
achieved.$
§
E.g.$a$machinist$might$be$absolutely$certain$(expectancy$=$
1.0)$that$she$can$perform$at$an$average$level$(producing$15$
units$a$day)$but$less$certain$(expectancy$=$.6)$that$she$can$
perform$at$a$high$level$(producing$20$units$a$day)
§
Expectancy
○
The$effort$directed$toward$a$first-level$outcome.
§
the$force$directed$toward$a$first-level$outcome$is$a$product$of$
the$valence$of$that$outcome$and$the$expectancy$that$it$can$be$
achieved.
§
Force$=$First-level$valence$×$Expectancy$
§
We$can$expect$an$individual’s$effort$to$be$directed$toward$the$
first-level$outcome$that$has$the$largest$force$product
§
no$matter$the$valence$of$a$particular$fi$rst-level$outcome,$a$
person$will$not$be$motivated$to$achieve$it$if$the$expectancy$of$
accomplishment$approaches$zero.$
§
Force.$
○
People$will$be$motivated$to$perform$in$those$work$activities$
that$they$find$attractive$and$that$they$feel$they$can$
accomplish.$
§
The$attractiveness$of$various$work$activities$depends$ on$the$
extent$to$which$they$lead$to$favourable$personal$
consequences.$
§
Expectancy$theory$in$summary
○
expectancy$theory$is$based$on$the$perceptions$of$the$individual$
worker
○
Expectancy$theory.$
•
Tests$support$for$it
○
Research$Support$for$Expectancy$Theory$
•
Managerial$Implications$of$Expectancy$Theory$
•
PROCESS$THEORIES$OF$WORK$MOTIVATION
Chapter$5
Tuesday,+ May+ 15,+2018
6:42+AM
the$need$for$increased$productivity$for$organizations$to$be$globally$
competitive.$
•
Before:$stable$system
○
Now:$flexible$⇒$need$motivation
○
It$is$also$a$result$of$the$rapid$changes$that$contemporary$organizations$
are$undergoing.$
•
WHY$STUDY$MOTIVATION?$
The$extent$to$which$persistent$effort$is$directed$toward$a$goal.$
§
Motivation
○
the$strength$ of$the$person’s$ work-related$behaviour
§
EFFORT
○
the$persistence$ that$individuals$exhibit$in$applying$effort$to$
their$work$tasks
§
PERSISTENCE
○
direction$of$the$person’s$work-related$behaviour.$
§
In$other$words,$do$workers$channel$persistent$effort$in$a$
direction$that$benefits$the$organization
§
E.g.$Employers$expect$motivated$software$designers$to$design$
software,$not$play$computer$games
§
DIRECTION
○
GOALS
○
Basic$Characteristics$of$Motivation
•
Motivation$that$stems$from$the$direct$relationship$ between$
the$worker$and$the$task;$it$is$usually$self-applied.
§
e.g. achievement
§
Intrinsic$motivation.$
○
Motivation$that$stems$from$the$work$environment$external$to$
the$task;$it$is$usually$applied$by$others.$
§
E.g.$Pay
§
Extrinsic$motivation.$
○
E.g.$a$promotion$or$a$compliment$
§
some$motivators$have$both$extrinsic$and$intrinsic$qualities
○
But$is$can$be$avoided$
§
when$extrinsic$rewards$depend$on$performance,$then$the$
motivating$potential$of$intrinsic$rewards$decreases
○
Extrinsic$and$Intrinsic$Motivation
•
The$extent$to$which$an$organizational$member$contributes$to$
achieving$the$objectives$of$the$organization.$
§
Performance.$
○
○
intelligence$or$mental$ability
□
cognitive)ability)
§
A$person’s$ basic$information-processing$capacities$and$
cognitive$resources.$
□
General$cognitive$ability.$
§
E.g.$verbal,$numerical,$spatial
§
Measured$by$test
§
GENERAL$COGNITIVE$ABILITY$
○
The$ability$to$understand$and$manage$one’s$own$and$other’s$
feelings$and$emotions.$
§
E.g.$ability$to$perceive$and$express$emotion
§
□
E.g.$identify$emotions$in$people’s$faces$and$in$non-
verbal$behaviour
®
Perceiving$emotions$accurately$in$oneself$and$others:
□
E.g.$making$decisions,$creativity,$integrative$
thinking,
®
Using$emotions$to$facilitate$thinking
□
people$understand$how$different$situations$ and$
events$generate$ emotions$as$well$as$how$they$and$
others$are$influenced$by$various$emotions
®
E.g.$don’t$ask$question$to$an$angry$person$
®
Understanding$emotions,$emotional$language,$and$the$
signals$conveyed$by$emotions:
□
an$individual$is$able$to$regulate,$adjust,$and$change$
his$or$her$own$emotions$as$well$as$others’$
emotions$to$suit$the$situation.
®
Managing$emotions$so$as$to$attain$specific$goals
□
EI$model
§
EMOTIONAL$INTELLIGENCE$(EI)
○
Motivation$and$Performance
•
Motivation$doesn’t$guarantee$ high$performance
○
The$Motivation–Performance$Relationship$
•
WHAT$IS$MOTIVATION?$
Motivation$theories$that$specify$the$kinds$of$needs$people$have$and$
the$conditions$under$which$they$will$be$motivated$to$satisfy$these$
needs$in$a$way$that$contributes$to$performance.$
○
NEEDS$→$BEHAVIOUR$→$INCENTIVES$AND$GOALS$
§
behaviour$stimulated
○
○
Need$theory:$concerned$with$what$motivates$workers$
§
concerned$with$exactly$how$various$factors$motivate$
people
□
Process$theories:$
§
Need$and$process$theories$
○
Need$theories
•
needs$that$must$be$satisfi$ed$for$the$person$to$survive
□
E.g.$food
□
Physiological$needsi.
needs$for$security,$stability,$freedom$from$anxiety,$and$a$
structured$and$ordered$environment
□
E.g.$safe$working$conditions,$job$security,$a$comfortable$
work$environment
□
Safety$needsii.
needs$for$social$interaction,$affection,$love,$
companionship,$and$friendship.
□
E.g.$opportunity$to$interact$with$others$on$the$job,$
friendly$and$supportive$supervision,$opportunity$for$
teamwork
□
Belongingness$ needsiii.
E.g.$awards,$promotions,$prestigious$job$titles
□
Esteem$needs.iv.
people$have$clear$perceptions$of$reality,$accept$
themselves$and$others,$and$appreciative$of$the$world$
around$them.$
□
E.g.$jobs$with$the$potential$for$creativity$and$growth
□
Self-actualization$needs.v.
A$five-level$hierarchical$need$theory$of$motivation$that$specifies$that$
the$lowest-level$unsatisfied$need$has$the$greatest$motivating$
potential.$
○
motivation$depends$on$the$person’s$position$in$the$need$
hierarchy
§
none$of$the$needs$ is$a$“best”$motivator;$
○
these$were$“growth”$needs$that$become$stronger$as$they$
are$gratified.$
□
Exception:$self-actualization$needs
§
A$satisfied$need$is$no$longer$an$effective$motivator
○
Maslow’s$Hierarchy$of$Needs$
•
needs$that$are$satisfied$by$some$material$substance$or$
condition.
□
Close$to$Maslow’s$physiological$needs$and$safety$needs
□
Existence$needs.$i.
satisfied$by$open$communication$and$the$exchange$of$
thoughts$and$feelings$with$other$organizational$
members
□
Close$to$
□
Maslow’s$belongingness$ needs$and$esteem$needs$ that$
involve$feedback$from$others
relatedness$ needs$are$satisfi$ed$by$open,$accurate,$
honest$interaction$rather$than$by$uncritical$
pleasantness
®
Unlike$Maslow
□
Relatedness$ needsii.
fulfilled$by$strong$personal$involvement$in$the$work$
setting.$
□
Close$to$Maslow’s$need$for$self-actualization$and$the$
aspects$of$his$esteem$needs$that$concern$achievement$
and$responsibility
□
the$least$concrete$needs
□
become$more$compelling$and$more$desired$as$they$are$
fulfilled.
□
Growth$needsiii.
three$categories:$
○
as$more$“concrete”$needs$are$satisfied,$energy$can$be$
directed$toward$satisfying$less$concrete$needs
□
as$lower-level$needs$are$satisfied,$the$desire$to$have$higher-
level$needs$satisfied$will$increase.$
§
Like$Maslow
○
ERG$theory$does$not$assume$that$a$lower-level$need$must$be$
gratified$before$a$less$concrete$need$becomes$operative.
§
E.g.$a$software$designer$who$is$unable$to$socialize$with$
his$co-workers$might$increase$his$interest$in$a$pay$
increase
□
an$apparently$satisfied$need$can$act$as$a$motivator$by$
substituting$for$an$unsatisfied$need
§
Unlike$Maslow
○
Alderfer’s$ERG$Theory
•
A$nonhierarchical$need$theory$of$motivation$that$outlines$the$
conditions$under$which$certain$needs$result$in$particular$
patterns$of$motivation.
§
McClelland’s$theory$of$needs.$
○
A$strong$desire$to$perform$challenging$tasks$well.$
§
A$preference$for$situations$in$which$personal$
responsibility$can$be$taken$for$outcomes
□
A$tendency$to$set$moderately$difficult$goals$that$provide$
for$calculated$risks
□
A$desire$for$performance$feedback
□
Characteristics$
§
But$it$doesn’t$mean$to$to$please$or$damage$ the$interests$
of$others
□
It$is$because$they$are$intrinsically$satisfying
□
∴$n$Ach$is$an$example$of$a$growth$or$self-actualization$
need
□
People$with$high$n$Ach$tries$to$go$beyond$others$
§
Salesperson$
□
Entrepreneur$$
□
Suited$Job
§
Need$for$achievement$(n$Ach)
○
i.e.$they$like$to$like$others,$and$they$want$others$to$like$
them
□
A$strong$desire$to$establish$and$maintain$friendly,$compatible$
interpersonal$relationships.$
§
learn$social$networking$quickly
□
communicate$frequently$with$others,
□
avoid$conflict$and$competition
□
Characteristics$
§
An$example$of$a$belongingness$ or$relatedness$need.$
§
Social$work$
□
Customer$relations
□
Suited$job
§
high$in$need)for)affiliation (n$Aff$)
○
A$strong$desire$to$influence$others,$making$a$significant$
impact$or$impression.$
§
attention-getting$manner
□
advocate$risky$positions
□
concern$for$personal$prestige
□
Characteristics$
§
An$example$of$Maslow’s$self-esteem$need.
§
Effective$managers$have$a$low$need$for$affiliation,$a$high$need$
for$power
§
Journalism$
□
Management$
□
Suited$job
§
high$in$need)for)power (n$Pow)
○
McClelland’s$Theory$of$Needs$
•
needs$should$cluster$into$the$five$main$need$categories$
§
as$the$needs$they$should$become$less$important,$while$the$
needs$in$the$adjacent$higher-need$ category$should$become$
more$important
§
Two$main$Hypotheses$of$Maslow
○
However,$there$is$fair$support$for$Alderfer’s$ERG$theory
§
And$good$support$for$$McClelland’s$need$theory$
§
research$support$for$both$these$hypotheses$is$weak$or$negative.$
○
Research$Support$for$Need$Theories$
•
managers$ must$offer$incentives$or$goals$that$correspond$to$
their$needs
§
APPRECIATE$DIVERSITY$
○
One$of$the$basic$conditions$for$organizational$survival$is$the$
expression$of$some$creative$and$innovative$behaviour$on$the$
part$of$members
§
This$can$lead$to$a$vicious$motivational$cycle
□
Administers use$low-level$needs$to$gratify$employees$
(pay)$→$deprived$of$higher-order$need$gratification$→$
expect$more$and$more$extrinsic$factors$→$more$pay$→$
more$expect$to$be$paid$
□
great$cost$to$the$organization
□
the$frustration$of$higher-order$needs$prompts$demands$ for$
greater$satisfaction$of$lower-order$needs.$
§
E.g.$safe$working$conditions
®
lower-level$needs$are$reasonably$well$gratified.
□
to$provide$feelings$of$responsibility$and$
achievement
®
jobs$can$be$“enriched”$to$be$more$stimulating$ and$
challenging$
□
challenge$workers’$higher-order$needs.$
®
organizations$could$pay$more$attention$to$designing$
career$paths$
□
How$to$benefit$from$intrinsic$motivation?
§
APPRECIATE$INTRINSIC$MOTIVATION
○
Managerial$Implications$of$Need$Theories
•
NEED$THEORIES$OF$WORK$MOTIVATION$
makes$a$distinction$between$autonomous$(or$self-determined)$
motivation$and$controlled$(or$not$self-determined)$ motivation
•
A$theory$of$motivation$that$considers$whether$people’s$motivation$
is$autonomous$or$controlled.
○
Self-determination$theory
•
Self-motivation$or$intrinsic$motivation$that$occurs$when$people$feel$
they$are$in$control$of$their$motivation.$
○
They$do$because$they$want$to
○
Autonomous$motivation.$
•
Motivation$that$is$externally controlled,$such$as$when$one$is$
motivated$to$obtain$a$desired$consequence$or$extrinsic$reward.$
○
individuals$feel$they$are$pressured$ and$have$no$choice$but$to$engage$
in$a$task
○
e.g. psychological$distress$and$turnover$intentions
§
controlled$motivation$is$associated$with$negative$outcomes,$
○
Controlled$motivation.$
•
self-determination$theory$posits$that$needs$are$not$hierarchical$
○
and$people$do$not$differ$in$the$strength$of$particular$needs.$
○
unlike$the$need$theories$
•
○
competence,$autonomy,$and$relatedness.
○
their$motivation$will$be$autonomous
§
If$not,$motivation$will$be$controlled
§
When$these$needs$are$met,$
○
three$basic$psychological$needs$
•
Providing$employees$with$choice$and$encouragement$for$
personal$initiative.
§
Autonomy$support.$
○
Research$Support$for$and$Managerial$Implications$of$Self-Determination$
Theory$
•
SELF-DETERMINATION$THEORY$
Motivation$theories$that$specify$the$details$of$how$motivation$
occurs.$
○
Process$theories.$
•
○
A$process$theory$that$states$that$motivation$is$determined$by$the$
outcomes$that$people$expect$to$occur$as$a$result$of$their$actions$on$
the$job.$
○
Consequences$that$follow$work$behaviour.$
§
Expectancy$theory$is$concerned$with$specifying$how$an$
employee$might$attempt$to$choose$one$first-level$outcome$
instead$of$another.
§
are$most$personally$relevant$to$the$individual$worker
□
consequences$that$follow$the$attainment$of$a$particular$
fi$rst-level$outcome
□
second-level$outcomes$
§
Outcomes.$
○
The$probability$that$a$particular first-level$outcome$will$be$
followed$by$a$particular$second-level$outcome.$
§
this$is$also$known$as$the$performance$→ outcome$link
§
E.g.$a$bank$teller$might$figure$that$the$odds$are$50/50$
(instrumentality$=$.5)$that$a$good$performance$rating$will$
result$in$a$pay$raise
§
Instrumentality.$
○
The$expected$value$of$work$outcomes;$the$extent$to$which$
they$are$attractive$or$unattractive.
§
e.g. good$pay,$peer$acceptance,$the$possibility$of$being$fi$red,$
or$any$other$second-level$outcome$might$be$more$or$less$
attractive$to$particular$workers.
§
□
the$valence$of$first-level$outcomes$is$the$sum$of$products$of$
the$associated$second-level$outcomes$and$their$
instrumentalities—that$ is,$
§
Valence.$
○
effort$→performance$link
□
The$probability$that$a$particular$first-level$outcome$can$be$
achieved.$
§
E.g.$a$machinist$might$be$absolutely$certain$(expectancy$=$
1.0)$that$she$can$perform$at$an$average$level$(producing$15$
units$a$day)$but$less$certain$(expectancy$=$.6)$that$she$can$
perform$at$a$high$level$(producing$20$units$a$day)
§
Expectancy
○
The$effort$directed$toward$a$first-level$outcome.
§
the$force$directed$toward$a$first-level$outcome$is$a$product$of$
the$valence$of$that$outcome$and$the$expectancy$that$it$can$be$
achieved.
§
Force$=$First-level$valence$×$Expectancy$
§
We$can$expect$an$individual’s$effort$to$be$directed$toward$the$
first-level$outcome$that$has$the$largest$force$product
§
no$matter$the$valence$of$a$particular$fi$rst-level$outcome,$a$
person$will$not$be$motivated$to$achieve$it$if$the$expectancy$of$
accomplishment$approaches$zero.$
§
Force.$
○
People$will$be$motivated$to$perform$in$those$work$activities$
that$they$find$attractive$and$that$they$feel$they$can$
accomplish.$
§
The$attractiveness$of$various$work$activities$depends$ on$the$
extent$to$which$they$lead$to$favourable$personal$
consequences.$
§
Expectancy$theory$in$summary
○
expectancy$theory$is$based$on$the$perceptions$of$the$individual$
worker
○
Expectancy$theory.$
•
Tests$support$for$it
○
Research$Support$for$Expectancy$Theory$
•
Managerial$Implications$of$Expectancy$Theory$
•
PROCESS$THEORIES$OF$WORK$MOTIVATION
Chapter$5
Tuesday,+ May+ 15,+2018 6:42+AM
the$need$for$increased$productivity$for$organizations$to$be$globally$
competitive.$
•
Before:$stable$system
○
Now:$flexible$⇒$need$motivation
○
It$is$also$a$result$of$the$rapid$changes$that$contemporary$organizations$
are$undergoing.$
•
WHY$STUDY$MOTIVATION?$
The$extent$to$which$persistent$effort$is$directed$toward$a$goal.$
§
Motivation
○
the$strength$ of$the$person’s$ work-related$behaviour
§
EFFORT
○
the$persistence$ that$individuals$exhibit$in$applying$effort$to$
their$work$tasks
§
PERSISTENCE
○
direction$of$the$person’s$work-related$behaviour.$
§
In$other$words,$do$workers$channel$persistent$effort$in$a$
direction$that$benefits$the$organization
§
E.g.$Employers$expect$motivated$software$designers$to$design$
software,$not$play$computer$games
§
DIRECTION
○
GOALS
○
Basic$Characteristics$of$Motivation
•
Motivation$that$stems$from$the$direct$relationship$ between$
the$worker$and$the$task;$it$is$usually$self-applied.
§
e.g. achievement
§
Intrinsic$motivation.$
○
Motivation$that$stems$from$the$work$environment$external$to$
the$task;$it$is$usually$applied$by$others.$
§
E.g.$Pay
§
Extrinsic$motivation.$
○
E.g.$a$promotion$or$a$compliment$
§
some$motivators$have$both$extrinsic$and$intrinsic$qualities
○
But$is$can$be$avoided$
§
when$extrinsic$rewards$depend$on$performance,$then$the$
motivating$potential$of$intrinsic$rewards$decreases
○
Extrinsic$and$Intrinsic$Motivation
•
The$extent$to$which$an$organizational$member$contributes$to$
achieving$the$objectives$of$the$organization.$
§
Performance.$
○
○
intelligence$or$mental$ability
□
cognitive)ability)
§
A$person’s$ basic$information-processing$capacities$and$
cognitive$resources.$
□
General$cognitive$ability.$
§
E.g.$verbal,$numerical,$spatial
§
Measured$by$test
§
GENERAL$COGNITIVE$ABILITY$
○
The$ability$to$understand$and$manage$one’s$own$and$other’s$
feelings$and$emotions.$
§
E.g.$ability$to$perceive$and$express$emotion
§
□
E.g.$identify$emotions$in$people’s$faces$and$in$non-
verbal$behaviour
®
Perceiving$emotions$accurately$in$oneself$and$others:
□
E.g.$making$decisions,$creativity,$integrative$
thinking,
®
Using$emotions$to$facilitate$thinking
□
people$understand$how$different$situations$ and$
events$generate$ emotions$as$well$as$how$they$and$
others$are$influenced$by$various$emotions
®
E.g.$don’t$ask$question$to$an$angry$person$
®
Understanding$emotions,$emotional$language,$and$the$
signals$conveyed$by$emotions:
□
an$individual$is$able$to$regulate,$adjust,$and$change$
his$or$her$own$emotions$as$well$as$others’$
emotions$to$suit$the$situation.
®
Managing$emotions$so$as$to$attain$specific$goals
□
EI$model
§
EMOTIONAL$INTELLIGENCE$(EI)
○
Motivation$and$Performance
•
Motivation$doesn’t$guarantee$ high$performance
○
The$Motivation–Performance$Relationship$
•
WHAT$IS$MOTIVATION?$
Motivation$theories$that$specify$the$kinds$of$needs$people$have$and$
the$conditions$under$which$they$will$be$motivated$to$satisfy$these$
needs$in$a$way$that$contributes$to$performance.$
○
NEEDS$→$BEHAVIOUR$→$INCENTIVES$AND$GOALS$
§
behaviour$stimulated
○
○
Need$theory:$concerned$with$what$motivates$workers$
§
concerned$with$exactly$how$various$factors$motivate$
people
□
Process$theories:$
§
Need$and$process$theories$
○
Need$theories
•
needs$that$must$be$satisfi$ed$for$the$person$to$survive
□
E.g.$food
□
Physiological$needsi.
needs$for$security,$stability,$freedom$from$anxiety,$and$a$
structured$and$ordered$environment
□
E.g.$safe$working$conditions,$job$security,$a$comfortable$
work$environment
□
Safety$needsii.
needs$for$social$interaction,$affection,$love,$
companionship,$and$friendship.
□
E.g.$opportunity$to$interact$with$others$on$the$job,$
friendly$and$supportive$supervision,$opportunity$for$
teamwork
□
Belongingness$ needsiii.
E.g.$awards,$promotions,$prestigious$job$titles
□
Esteem$needs.iv.
people$have$clear$perceptions$of$reality,$accept$
themselves$and$others,$and$appreciative$of$the$world$
around$them.$
□
E.g.$jobs$with$the$potential$for$creativity$and$growth
□
Self-actualization$needs.v.
A$five-level$hierarchical$need$theory$of$motivation$that$specifies$that$
the$lowest-level$unsatisfied$need$has$the$greatest$motivating$
potential.$
○
motivation$depends$on$the$person’s$position$in$the$need$
hierarchy
§
none$of$the$needs$ is$a$“best”$motivator;$
○
these$were$“growth”$needs$that$become$stronger$as$they$
are$gratified.$
□
Exception:$self-actualization$needs
§
A$satisfied$need$is$no$longer$an$effective$motivator
○
Maslow’s$Hierarchy$of$Needs$
•
needs$that$are$satisfied$by$some$material$substance$or$
condition.
□
Close$to$Maslow’s$physiological$needs$and$safety$needs
□
Existence$needs.$i.
satisfied$by$open$communication$and$the$exchange$of$
thoughts$and$feelings$with$other$organizational$
members
□
Close$to$
□
Maslow’s$belongingness$ needs$and$esteem$needs$ that$
involve$feedback$from$others
relatedness$ needs$are$satisfi$ed$by$open,$accurate,$
honest$interaction$rather$than$by$uncritical$
pleasantness
®
Unlike$Maslow
□
Relatedness$ needsii.
fulfilled$by$strong$personal$involvement$in$the$work$
setting.$
□
Close$to$Maslow’s$need$for$self-actualization$and$the$
aspects$of$his$esteem$needs$that$concern$achievement$
and$responsibility
□
the$least$concrete$needs
□
become$more$compelling$and$more$desired$as$they$are$
fulfilled.
□
Growth$needsiii.
three$categories:$
○
as$more$“concrete”$needs$are$satisfied,$energy$can$be$
directed$toward$satisfying$less$concrete$needs
□
as$lower-level$needs$are$satisfied,$the$desire$to$have$higher-
level$needs$satisfied$will$increase.$
§
Like$Maslow
○
ERG$theory$does$not$assume$that$a$lower-level$need$must$be$
gratified$before$a$less$concrete$need$becomes$operative.
§
E.g.$a$software$designer$who$is$unable$to$socialize$with$
his$co-workers$might$increase$his$interest$in$a$pay$
increase
□
an$apparently$satisfied$need$can$act$as$a$motivator$by$
substituting$for$an$unsatisfied$need
§
Unlike$Maslow
○
Alderfer’s$ERG$Theory
•
A$nonhierarchical$need$theory$of$motivation$that$outlines$the$
conditions$under$which$certain$needs$result$in$particular$
patterns$of$motivation.
§
McClelland’s$theory$of$needs.$
○
A$strong$desire$to$perform$challenging$tasks$well.$
§
A$preference$for$situations$in$which$personal$
responsibility$can$be$taken$for$outcomes
□
A$tendency$to$set$moderately$difficult$goals$that$provide$
for$calculated$risks
□
A$desire$for$performance$feedback
□
Characteristics$
§
But$it$doesn’t$mean$to$to$please$or$damage$ the$interests$
of$others
□
It$is$because$they$are$intrinsically$satisfying
□
∴$n$Ach$is$an$example$of$a$growth$or$self-actualization$
need
□
People$with$high$n$Ach$tries$to$go$beyond$others$
§
Salesperson$
□
Entrepreneur$$
□
Suited$Job
§
Need$for$achievement$(n$Ach)
○
i.e.$they$like$to$like$others,$and$they$want$others$to$like$
them
□
A$strong$desire$to$establish$and$maintain$friendly,$compatible$
interpersonal$relationships.$
§
learn$social$networking$quickly
□
communicate$frequently$with$others,
□
avoid$conflict$and$competition
□
Characteristics$
§
An$example$of$a$belongingness$ or$relatedness$need.$
§
Social$work$
□
Customer$relations
□
Suited$job
§
high$in$need)for)affiliation (n$Aff$)
○
A$strong$desire$to$influence$others,$making$a$significant$
impact$or$impression.$
§
attention-getting$manner
□
advocate$risky$positions
□
concern$for$personal$prestige
□
Characteristics$
§
An$example$of$Maslow’s$self-esteem$need.
§
Effective$managers$have$a$low$need$for$affiliation,$a$high$need$
for$power
§
Journalism$
□
Management$
□
Suited$job
§
high$in$need)for)power (n$Pow)
○
McClelland’s$Theory$of$Needs$
•
needs$should$cluster$into$the$five$main$need$categories$
§
as$the$needs$they$should$become$less$important,$while$the$
needs$in$the$adjacent$higher-need$ category$should$become$
more$important
§
Two$main$Hypotheses$of$Maslow
○
However,$there$is$fair$support$for$Alderfer’s$ERG$theory
§
And$good$support$for$$McClelland’s$need$theory$
§
research$support$for$both$these$hypotheses$is$weak$or$negative.$
○
Research$Support$for$Need$Theories$
•
managers$ must$offer$incentives$or$goals$that$correspond$to$
their$needs
§
APPRECIATE$DIVERSITY$
○
One$of$the$basic$conditions$for$organizational$survival$is$the$
expression$of$some$creative$and$innovative$behaviour$on$the$
part$of$members
§
This$can$lead$to$a$vicious$motivational$cycle
□
Administers use$low-level$needs$to$gratify$employees$
(pay)$→$deprived$of$higher-order$need$gratification$→$
expect$more$and$more$extrinsic$factors$→$more$pay$→$
more$expect$to$be$paid$
□
great$cost$to$the$organization
□
the$frustration$of$higher-order$needs$prompts$demands$ for$
greater$satisfaction$of$lower-order$needs.$
§
E.g.$safe$working$conditions
®
lower-level$needs$are$reasonably$well$gratified.
□
to$provide$feelings$of$responsibility$and$
achievement
®
jobs$can$be$“enriched”$to$be$more$stimulating$ and$
challenging$
□
challenge$workers’$higher-order$needs.$
®
organizations$could$pay$more$attention$to$designing$
career$paths$
□
How$to$benefit$from$intrinsic$motivation?
§
APPRECIATE$INTRINSIC$MOTIVATION
○
Managerial$Implications$of$Need$Theories
•
NEED$THEORIES$OF$WORK$MOTIVATION$
makes$a$distinction$between$autonomous$(or$self-determined)$
motivation$and$controlled$(or$not$self-determined)$ motivation
•
A$theory$of$motivation$that$considers$whether$people’s$motivation$
is$autonomous$or$controlled.
○
Self-determination$theory
•
Self-motivation$or$intrinsic$motivation$that$occurs$when$people$feel$
they$are$in$control$of$their$motivation.$
○
They$do$because$they$want$to
○
Autonomous$motivation.$
•
Motivation$that$is$externally controlled,$such$as$when$one$is$
motivated$to$obtain$a$desired$consequence$or$extrinsic$reward.$
○
individuals$feel$they$are$pressured$ and$have$no$choice$but$to$engage$
in$a$task
○
e.g. psychological$distress$and$turnover$intentions
§
controlled$motivation$is$associated$with$negative$outcomes,$
○
Controlled$motivation.$
•
self-determination$theory$posits$that$needs$are$not$hierarchical$
○
and$people$do$not$differ$in$the$strength$of$particular$needs.$
○
unlike$the$need$theories$
•
○
competence,$autonomy,$and$relatedness.
○
their$motivation$will$be$autonomous
§
If$not,$motivation$will$be$controlled
§
When$these$needs$are$met,$
○
three$basic$psychological$needs$
•
Providing$employees$with$choice$and$encouragement$for$
personal$initiative.
§
Autonomy$support.$
○
Research$Support$for$and$Managerial$Implications$of$Self-Determination$
Theory$
•
SELF-DETERMINATION$THEORY$
Motivation$theories$that$specify$the$details$of$how$motivation$
occurs.$
○
Process$theories.$
•
○
A$process$theory$that$states$that$motivation$is$determined$by$the$
outcomes$that$people$expect$to$occur$as$a$result$of$their$actions$on$
the$job.$
○
Consequences$that$follow$work$behaviour.$
§
Expectancy$theory$is$concerned$with$specifying$how$an$
employee$might$attempt$to$choose$one$first-level$outcome$
instead$of$another.
§
are$most$personally$relevant$to$the$individual$worker
□
consequences$that$follow$the$attainment$of$a$particular$
fi$rst-level$outcome
□
second-level$outcomes$
§
Outcomes.$
○
The$probability$that$a$particular first-level$outcome$will$be$
followed$by$a$particular$second-level$outcome.$
§
this$is$also$known$as$the$performance$→ outcome$link
§
E.g.$a$bank$teller$might$figure$that$the$odds$are$50/50$
(instrumentality$=$.5)$that$a$good$performance$rating$will$
result$in$a$pay$raise
§
Instrumentality.$
○
The$expected$value$of$work$outcomes;$the$extent$to$which$
they$are$attractive$or$unattractive.
§
e.g. good$pay,$peer$acceptance,$the$possibility$of$being$fi$red,$
or$any$other$second-level$outcome$might$be$more$or$less$
attractive$to$particular$workers.
§
□
the$valence$of$first-level$outcomes$is$the$sum$of$products$of$
the$associated$second-level$outcomes$and$their$
instrumentalities—that$ is,$
§
Valence.$
○
effort$→performance$link
□
The$probability$that$a$particular$first-level$outcome$can$be$
achieved.$
§
E.g.$a$machinist$might$be$absolutely$certain$(expectancy$=$
1.0)$that$she$can$perform$at$an$average$level$(producing$15$
units$a$day)$but$less$certain$(expectancy$=$.6)$that$she$can$
perform$at$a$high$level$(producing$20$units$a$day)
§
Expectancy
○
The$effort$directed$toward$a$first-level$outcome.
§
the$force$directed$toward$a$first-level$outcome$is$a$product$of$
the$valence$of$that$outcome$and$the$expectancy$that$it$can$be$
achieved.
§
Force$=$First-level$valence$×$Expectancy$
§
We$can$expect$an$individual’s$effort$to$be$directed$toward$the$
first-level$outcome$that$has$the$largest$force$product
§
no$matter$the$valence$of$a$particular$fi$rst-level$outcome,$a$
person$will$not$be$motivated$to$achieve$it$if$the$expectancy$of$
accomplishment$approaches$zero.$
§
Force.$
○
People$will$be$motivated$to$perform$in$those$work$activities$
that$they$find$attractive$and$that$they$feel$they$can$
accomplish.$
§
The$attractiveness$of$various$work$activities$depends$ on$the$
extent$to$which$they$lead$to$favourable$personal$
consequences.$
§
Expectancy$theory$in$summary
○
expectancy$theory$is$based$on$the$perceptions$of$the$individual$
worker
○
Expectancy$theory.$
•
Tests$support$for$it
○
Research$Support$for$Expectancy$Theory$
•
Managerial$Implications$of$Expectancy$Theory$
•
PROCESS$THEORIES$OF$WORK$MOTIVATION
Chapter$5
Tuesday,+ May+ 15,+2018 6:42+AM
