Biology 3592A Chapter Notes - Chapter 2: Kinetochore, Pseudoautosomal Region, Phosphodiester Bond

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15 Sep 2016

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Chapter 2 - intro to the human genome. Theme: every individual has unique gene products, a result of genome sequence, environmental exposure and experiences. The human genome and the chromosomal basis of heredity. Every cell with a nucleus has a copy of the genome, made up of dna. Genes: functional pieces of genetic info, has a specific place (locus) on a chromosome, heritable units. Gene map: shows location of genes in the genome, different for species and individuals within a species. Cytogenetics: study of the structure and inheritance of chromosomes. Germline: cells that eventually develop into gametes, the rest of the cells are somatic cells. 46 chromosomes in human somatic cells: 22 pairs of autosomes, 1 pair of sex chromosomes (x and y) Each pair of homologues has the same genes in the same order. But possibly different alleles at the loci (from father and mother)

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Ploidy refers to the number of complete sets of chromosomes (genes) present in a cell. The number of chromosomes in a complete set is a fixed characteristic of a species. Humans are diploid with two sets of 23 chromosomes. Fruit flies are diploid with two sets of 4 chromosomes. Sexually reproducing organisms are diploid, each somatic cell of an organism has two complete sets ("di" is a prefix indicating 2.). To complete a life cycle and reproduce new members of a species, mating is required. Mating brings a donation from a male and a donation from a female together. However, if the male and female cells remain diploid, the fertilization will result in a tetraploid zygote. In general, these are not viable. A mechanism is needed to form special haploid cells, gametes. The diploid set is split precisely into two complete haploid sets. That mechanism is meiosis.

The complete set of chromosomes of a species is also the complete set of genes of a species, the genome. (Yes, there is a minor contribution from mitochondria and chloroplasts. Inheritance of this information is "cytoplasmic".)

Please answer the following questions:

1. How many chromosomes in a brain cell of a fruit fly? How many chromosomes are in a liver cell of a human? Explain both answers.

2. How many chromosomes are in a fruit fly unfertilized egg? How many chromosomes are in a human egg? Explain both answers.

3. Why is meiosis necessary for sexually reproducing organisms? How many chromosomes are in a human zygote? Relate the two answers.

4. What is a gene allele? Suppose there is a gene called "bingo" and it is present once in a complete haploid set. How many alleles of "bingo" does a diploid individual have? How many copies or versions of the gene "bingo" are present in a diploid individual?

5. Modern DNA sequencing clearly identifies alleles by showing the different DNA sequence of each allele. These alleles may be termed structural alleles (I coined the term for this problem.). Classical genetics only dealt with phenotypes or visible traits. As a result, alleles of genes were identified by functionality, usually normal or non-functional. Using your knowledge of gene structure and gene expression, postulate a relationship between structural alleles and functional alleles. (include relative amounts; more, less, or equal).

What is a genome? What is a genome made of? Describe the bacterial genome. How do bacteria reproduce? What is binary fission? Distinguish between a chromosome and chromatin. Where are chromosomes located in eukaryotic cells? What is the chromosome made of? What is a centromere? What is the centromere's role? What are sister chromatids and how do they arise? Distinguish between somatic cells and germ (gametes) cells. Describe the cell cycle. What are the different phases? What occurs during S phase? What is interphase? How is the cell cycle controlled?

Describe mitosis. What are the phases of mitosis? What occurs in each of the phases of mitosis? What is cytokinesis? How does this differ between plant and animal cells? What is a kinetochore? Where does it form? What is its role? What is the role of microtubules in mitosis? What is a centriole and what is it composed of? What is a centrosome and what is its role in mitosis? What is the metaphase plate and why is this important? What is the mitotic spindle, its role and its makeup? What defines a diploid cell? How many copies of each chromosome is in a diploid cell? What about a haploid cell? Why do the daughter cells of mitosis always have the same complement of chromosomes?

Describe meiosis. What are the phases of meiosis? What occurs in each of the phases of meiosis? Distinguish between meiosis I and meiosis II and describe how each of these processes compare to mitosis. Why do animal cells undergo meiosis? What is a gamete? What is a zygote? What are recombination, crossing-over, and chiasma? When and why does this occur? What is meant by 'homologous pair of chromosomes'? Why don't the daughter cells of meiosis have the same genetic makeup? What controls the segregation of chromosomes into the gametes?

What are genetic characters? What are genetic traits? What is an allele? What is a locus? How many alleles at each locus would a human cell have and why? Distinguish between genotype and phenotype. What is meant by a dominant gene? What is meant by a recessive gene? How do these differ? What is the genotype of a homozygous dominant organism? What is its phenotype? What is the genotype of a homozygous recessive organism? What is its phenotype? What is the genotype of a heterozygous organism? What is its phenotype? What is a genetic cross? Distinguish between the P, F1, and F2 generations. What is a true-breeding line? What is the genotype and phenotype of a cross between homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive parents? If the F1 progeny are crossed, what would be the genotype and phenotype of the F2 generation? What would be the phenotypic ratio? What would be the genotypic ratio? Be ready to generate Punnet square tests or probability analyses of crosses involving more than one genetic locus. Describe a dihybrid cross where two alleles are homozygous dominant in one parent and homozygous recessive in the other. What would be the phenotypic ratio of the F2 generation from this dihybrid cross? What is meant by independent assortment? Be prepared to calculate probabilities resulting from different crosses.

Distinguish between complete and incomplete dominance. How would incomplete dominance alter the results of a hybrid cross? What would the resulting F2 generation phenotype and genotype ratios be? What is codominance? How does this affect the results of crosses? Be prepared to determine likely blood types of parents based on the blood types of their offspring. What is a polygenic trait? What is a carrier state for a genetic disease? What is meant by linked genes? How does this affect expected outcomes of genetic crosses? How is gene linkage used for chromosomal mapping? Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes. What sex chromosomes are found in women? What sex chromosomes are found in men? What are sex-linked traits? Be prepared to give the results of crosses that involve sex-linked recessive traits. What is the process of nondisjunction? What are the likely results? Why is this important? What is a Barr body? Recognize the genetic abnormality of Downs Syndrome, Turner's Syndrome, and Klinefelter's Syndrome.

pucewallaby221

I'll be thankful if someone can help me to do this!

According to this:

Read the following New York Times article and then answer the questions below and then answer the questions New Clues to Sex Anomalies in How Y Chromosomes Are Copied

http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/15/science/15chrom.html?scp=1&sq=sex%20anomalies&st=cse

This activity contains 5 questions.

When discarding bad genes, what does the Y chromosome recombine with?

	the other Y chromosome
	the compliment X chromosome
	itself
	nothing

What holds a pair of copied chromosomes together?

	chromatid
	centrosome
	centromere
	chromatin

A person with Turner's syndrome has which of the following?

	a single X chromosome
	two X chromosomes
	a single Y chromosome
	two Y chromosomes

Where is the male-determining gene on the Y chromosome?

	close to the end of the right arm
	close to the end of the left arm
	near the middle of the right arm
	near the middle of the left arm

Briefly explain how an individual can have some cells with no Y chromosome and other cells with a double-Y chromosome . (in your response, go beyond the article, search the web, use experiences from your life, broaden your horizons)

You must make 2 reflective, thoughtful, deep, constructive critiques of your class mates posts. as part of a threaded discussion following their initial post. The critiques must not about you, but about science!

Here's the first peson. Needs to reply for some of her answers as it says above.

1. When discarding bad genes, the Y chromosomes recombines with itself.

2. The centromere functions to hold a pair of copied chromosomes together.

3. A person with Turnerâs syndrome is born with a single X chromosome.

4. The male-determining gene on the Y chromosome is located close to the end of the left arm.

5. An individual can have some cells with no Y chromosomes and other cells with double Y chromosomes, due to the differing variants present in regards to the genotypes of the cells in a single individual. When the Y chromosome is compared to other chromosomes such as the X chromosome, mutations and deviation in the distance of the centromere are much more prevalent due to the Y chromosome lacking a backup system to promote repairs.¹ (Links to an external site.) Even if a mutation caused a condition such as the XYY syndrome where two Y chromosomes are present, that mutation and genotype would not be present in every single cell of the individual.² (Links to an external site.) The presence of different genotypes offers an tentative explanation to as why a single individual can have some cells with no Y chromosomes while also housing other cells with double Y chromosomes.

Source 1 http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/15/science/15chrom.html

Source 2 https://www.healthline.com/health/xyy-syndrome

Here's the second person. Needs to do the same as it says above.

1. Itself

2. Centromere

3. A single X chromosome

4. Close to the end of the left arm

5. Briefly explain how an individual can have some cells with no Y chromosome and other cells with a double-Y chromosome.

In some cases, the Y chromosome reaches over to a neighboring counterpart and the two chromosomes fuse. This results in the loss of part of the chromosome. Jacobâs Syndrome is sometimes also called XYY syndrome because the person has two Y chromosomes. Although a person can survive with this genetic mutation, some physical traits may be observed such as taller than average height, weak muscle development or late speech development.

Source 1 https://www.healthline.com/health/xyy-syndrome

Source 2 http://www.isna.org/faq/y_chromosome

Biology 3592A Chapter Notes - Chapter 2: Kinetochore, Pseudoautosomal Region, Phosphodiester Bond

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