Psychology 3130A/B Chapter Notes - Chapter 2: Linear Combination, Multidimensional Scaling, Context-Dependent Memory
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20 Dec 2017
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Chapter 2:Psychology of Similarity
What is Similarity
• Seems to be a domain general construct
o means that it operates according to the same principles whether or not the objects or ideas that are being
compared are visual, auditory etc or recalled from memory
• similarity as a computation is carried out in the same way regardless of context
• have to account for flexibility and fluidity that exists in how people understand and rate similarity
o more than one kind of similarity (coin example page 40); we can appreciate similarity between and among objects
at different levels
Similarity and the thinking process
• plays role in cognitive processes; important aspect of many higher order thoughts
Object Recognition
• able to see an object from a variety of POVs, recognize the object, name it, access categorical info, grasp it appropriately
• often assumed to require an assessment of the similarity between the incoming perceptual representation and the mental
representations that have been stored in memory
• objects are recognized as a function of their similarity to stored patterns of known and previously seen objects
• understanding of similarity is crucial for understanding of object recognition process
Memory retrieval
• Semantic memory – memory for facts – is assumed to be organized conceptually
• Retrieval cue must contact most similar representations in memory
• Memory retrieval errors are a function of similarity
• Many early cognitive theories of semantic memory demonstrate importance of similarity with the basic idea of spreading
activation
o Spreading activation occurs when a single target concept is activated, and that activation spreads to other related
concepts; degree of spread is influenced by similarity and may also be taken as an index of similarity
o Typically measured in terms of reaction time in a lexical decision task (task where letter strings either words or non
words present, required to respond quick with judgement of whether string is word or not)
▪ e.g. identify work for, should be faster to correctly identify word knife
• MINERVA2 = model of memory; instance-based
o built on the notion that similarity between memory traces is a major component of memory retrieval
o memory retrieval functions as a result of the similarity between a probe and many retrieved memory traces
o probe can be thought of as a cue, or a prompt requiring system to recall a memory
o probe contacts as many stored exemplars as it can, but exemplars that are more similar to the probe are retrieved
more quickly
o probe able to contact many similar exemplars quickly corresponds to memories that are retrieved easily
Problem Solving
• problems that are similar are solved similarity, a problem solver can use this assessment similarity to assit in solving
problems
• Newell and Simon describes problem solving as a search through a defined problem space
o Problem space is simply the arrangement of the currents state, the goal, the obstacles to reaching that goal, and
the operators that allow one to reach the goal
• Solving a problem can be thought of as a process of moving through the problem space from initial state towards goal state
• Possibly that problem space navigation is a process of tracking the increased similarity between the current state and goal
state
o Problem solver knows what goal state is supposed to look like and can compare current state to that in order to
determine which action to choose next
Inductive Reasoning
• Typically involves generalizing and making predictions about the future based on past events
• similarity-coverage model assumes that inductions and inferences are based on an understanding of the similarity among
the items or concepts being considered in a given argument
• inductive reasoning is a mental process by which we make predictions about future outcomes based on our knowledge of
something
• similarity between two items helps to determine strength of the inductive inference
Assessment of Similarity
Ratings Task
• asking people how similar two things are; scale 1-7
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