Chapter 1 Introducing Sport and Exercise Psychology
- Profession to help young athletes need to know how psychological factors
may influence performance + motivation, intervention skills to design +
implement an effective intervention
- For example someone who is experiencing anxiety, the consultant may
need to know relationship between different types of anxiety + self
confidence, different strategies to deal with anxiety and how to put it into
practice
- Myths: only athletes w/serious mental problems need sport/exercise
psychologist and that all sport psychologist work w/elite athletes to
enhance sport performance
Introduction
- Sport + exercise are iimportant in Canadian life
Complex w/many subdiscipline
- Sport + exericese psyc has gained national creditions especially in
discipline of Kineisiology as core subject to be covered
Nature of Sport + Exercise Psychology
- Most university suggest it is branch of sport science that involves scientific
study of human behavior in sport + practical application of knowledge
insport
- Others say it is science in which pricniples of psychology are applied in
sport/exercise setting
- Majority of theories is dominated by field of psychology
- Includes cognitive, clinical, counselling, physiological, social,
developmental, health psychology
Positive Psychology in Sport + Exercise
- Common belief S + E forucses on abnormal/problematic behavior due to
medical model to reduce/eliminate pathological mental behavior
- Seligman criticized psychology for focusing too much on mental illness
rather than human side of strength + personal growth
Positive psychology can be subjective experience; well being,
satisfaction, fulfilliment, pleasure, happiness
How does support of team help people to thrive, playing on team
contribute to self acceptance - Most of S + E directed to enhancing performance, social, physical well
being, positive emotion
- Peake performance is about psychological, physical, emotional strength
- Research devoted to optimistic disposition, flow states, enjoyment,
satisfaction, growth, challenge
Careers in S + E psychology
- Increase awareness of S + E, teaching basic principles of S + E
psychology, helping athletes to develop + psychological skills to enhance
performance/working w/clients to enhance exercise behavior + well being
- Research to describe predict, explain cognition, emotion under ethnical
guidelines
In presentations for discussion about strengths + limitations of
theories, methods, pardigms
- Consulting: helping ind, team optimize performance, change PA behavior,
manage sport + life demands, enhance well being
Canadian uni don’t use sport psychologist on limited basis
Also in fitness industry, rehabilitation, business community
Education, counselling, clinical
Standards of conduct + practioner competencies in S + E psychology
- Ethics is matters of right and wrong as they relate to human behavior
Nature, terms, parameters of relationship btwn consultant + client
At best assist athletes and at worst do no harm
- Principle 1: respect for dignity of persons: regardless of culture, religion,
gener, marital status, sexuality and extent to confidentiality + freedom to
consent for consulting services
- Principle 2: responsible caring: weighs cost + benefits of various methods
to mini harm and max benefits
- Principle 3: integrity in relationship: upheld thru self knowledge + critical
analysis
- Principle 4 responsibility to society: pratise of freedom of inquiry + debate,
caring for athlete is priority and must not violate by attempts to benefit
society Chapter 2 Research Perspective in S + E psychology
- Myths:
Research is defined by goals of activity or undertaking
Experimentation is only way to advance S + E psychology reaserch
Qualitative research methods aren’t as rigorous as quantitative
research methods
Introduction:
- International competition reinforced dominant role of science in high
performance sport
Enhancement and utilization of better equipment/facitlies
- Argument of whether science and research has role in health promotion
services
Science and Scientific Research
- Science is dynamic yet imperfect process of knowledge accumulation thru
research
- Basic research is testing fundamental mech that produce conditions w/o
concern for practical utility
- Applied research focuses on generating solution to immediate rpblems
- Intuition is development of implicit understanding of phenomena of interest
in absence of formal training
- Tradition is knowledge that is historically rooted w/no emphases on current
info
- Authorities are expert whose opinions are considered final words in
knowledge acquisition
- Logic involves knowledge generated thru application of formal rules of
reasoning to problem in question , derived inductively or deductively
- Scientific method is series of steps executed to generate knowledge, but
often disagreed upon the level of objectivity and total steps needed
Common ones are identification of research problem, formation of
hypothesis, collection + analysis of data and integration of conclusion
w/direction for additional study Research wants to predict or explain phenomena
- Descriptive research: in-depth portrayal of phenomenon of interest
Example: study to describe athletes use of imagery in sport
- Predictive research: establish directional relationship
Changes in physical self perceptions and health related behaviros in
adolescent girls over 3 year period
- Research eventual goal is develop theory: interconnected set of concepts
explaining how and why discrete phenomena work tgt
Basic Reaserch Terminolgoy
- Nomothetic is attempt to isolate rules + obs that pertain to most cases on
most occasions
- Idiographic is special/unique cases that doesn’t apply to most ppl on most
occasion
- Null hypothesis: no relationship btwn variables under study and no
difference anticipated btwn groups receiving diff conditions of independent
variables
- Alternative/reseach hypothesis: educated guess regarding what they
expect to find
- Casual: implied releationship btwn independent/dependent variable
Proposed cause must be correlated w/observed effect
Proposed cause must precede effect or must be evidence of what
methodologist refer to temporal precedence
All other possible extraneous variable must be systematically ruled
out
- Research ethics board: ensures research is conducted in manner that
protects the integrity + safety of participants and researchers
Anonymity: inability to identify participant involved in reaserch project
Confidentiality: retention of all participant date in confidence so ind
data is not identifiable by others
Informed consent: participants fully informed of rights +
responsibilities and how they will be treated in experiement
- Beneficence: degree to which proposed research max potential benefits
while min possible harm
Doesn’t guarantee participants face no risk given non invasive
reaserch carriers risk of disclosure
- Justice: selection of participants should be those who derive benefits from
results of study Basic Measurement Concepts
- Psychometrics: assessment of psychological variables using numbers
- Realibitliy is consistency/stability of score derived from single/multiple test
Degree of precision
Classic approach is using true score model where every observed
score has 2 components:
Ture score (actual ability) and error of measurement (introduced
by act of measuring variable)
- Validity is extent to which scores when interpreted serve intended function
Content validity: degree to which test items are relevant/fully
represent focal variable of interest
Criterion validity: degree which test scores associated w/criterion of
interest (ie test measuring aggressiveness who record aggressive
actions for certain period of time in atheltes)
Consequential validity: actual and potential consequence stemming
from test score use
- Sampling: process of selecting observation from population for purpose of
research
Sample: selection of obs from large population
Population is either theoretical (all possible elements) or study (all
accessible elements)
Research Design
- Internal validity: extent to which results can be attributed to
treatment/intervention rather than design flaw
- Internal validity threat: other plausible explanation for study findings
Maturation
History: influence of unsual, yet powerful external event
Selection: non random placement of particpants in group for
intervention research study
Mortality: departure of participants in studies that use repeated
assesments
Testing: influence of earlier test socres on later scores when test is
administer on multiple occasions
Instrumentation: alterations in nature/reliability of test
Regression to mean: nature tendency of extreme scores to regress
to typical population during subsequent testing Diffusion of terament: adoption of intervention type response by
partiiciplant in control group when they learn of treatment provided to
other group
Resentful demoralization: resentment by participlants in control when
learned treatement not applied to them
- Randomized experimental designs: two hallmarks
Randomly assign participants to different conditions
Manipulation of independent variables
- Quasi experiemental: attempt to unearth cuase of change in dependent
variables w/o randomly assigning participants w/o randomizing
May be due to not possible, practical reasons or not desirable
- Non experiemental: establish patterns of relationship in absence of group
assignment/variable manipulation
Place emphasis on testing arguments derived from theory or
predicting criterion variable of interest rather than on estabilsih
casuality
Sometimes known as passive obs or correlational design
Qualitative research in S + E psychology
- Quantitative inquiry is approach that focuses on quantifying/counting
amount of particular variable
- Qualitative inquiry encompass set of practices which reaserch seek to
understand world from perspective of those being studied
Attempt to understand insider’s view
Usually occur in naturalistic context, everyday experiences
Usually purposeful sample rather than radndommized and involves
in-depth study of small number of participants
- Basic interpretation qualitative studies: seek to understand particular
phenomenon, perspective, perceptions through interviews, obs,
documentary, examination
- Phenomenology: philosophical tradition that concerns structure or essence
of lived experience (phenonmenon) for ind/group of ppl
Temp put aside their preconceptions
May provide info to encourage teachers, coaches to be aware of
emotional/social consequence stemming from phsycial awkwardness
- Ground theory: approach where theory is developed inductively from
participants data
Usually substantive rather than omnibus to explain broad phenonmenon
Localized, dealings w/particular real world situation
- Case studies: intensive descriptions + analyses of single unit in terms of
ind/group/intervention/event/community
Incorporate variety of disciplinary/methodologies perspective
- Ethnography: study of cultureoperating w/in group/team
- Narrative analysis: collect data for purpose to present story told in first
person distinguish it from scientific writing of other forms
Biography, autobiography, life narratives
Chapter 3 Personality in S + E
- Can personality predict sport performance?
- Is the uniqueness of person need to be consistent over situations or can it
be different in context like school, friends, sports?
- Does personality interact w/motivation
- Since 1970, debate over using personality to predict sport behavior +
success but dropped in 1980s b/c perceived difficulties in measuring
personality + disagreement about importance of personality in sport
Psychosocial factors however still remain important: trait confidence,
trait anxiety, identity, attentional style, mental toughness, hardiness,
optimism, competitiveness, ego + mastery goal orientation,
perfectionism, extroversion
What is personality
- Consistency of social behavior, thoughts + emotiosn
- Overall organization of psychological characteistics: thinking, feeling,
behaving differentiating us from tohers
- Emphasis on individual differences
- Disposition: broad, pervasive, encompassing ways of relating to particular
type of ppl
In S + E it is applied to behavior, thoughts, emotions that are stable
like competitiveness, optimis, motivational orientation
- Most common way to describe personality is thru statistical methods to
look at cluster of behaviors related/correlated: traits
Trait is portion of personality
- States: momentary feeling that changes depending on situation (different
than traits)
Ie someone who has perfectionism may have qualities of organized, compulsive, socially precise, controlled, self discipline but the degree
of each trait varies depending on indidivual
Someone who is in aggressive state mayb e angered, compulsive at
that moment due to situation such as losing goals to opposing team
- Common assumption that personality is traits that are normally distributed
- Two models include Cattel’s trait personality and Digman’s five factor
model
Cattel propose there are 16 personality factors = source traits
Source for sport psychology in 1960, 70
Suggestion that successful athletes share certain traits
Digman suggest all ppl can be describe in 5 global factors: OCEAN
Openness to experience (opposite of close mindedness,
curious)
Conscientiousness (achievement striving, self discipline)
Extroversion (assertiveness, energetic approach)
Agreeableness (compliance, positive approach toward others)
Neuroticism (feeling of tension + nervousness)
Preeminent theory but limited application
Suggesting it may be motivational variables to prediction of
exercise behavior, ie conscientiousness + extroversion
people are more likely to meet their intentions to exercise
How does personality develop?
- Different viewpoints from biological to sociocultural, 3 main described
- Psychodynamics:
Grew from mvmt founded by Frued (psychoanalytic)
Key aspect that strong biolocial mechism driving motivated behavior
Suggest all behavior is interconnected + driven by unconscious
forces
Id: instinctual + driving force of personality, pleasure principle
Ego: mediates ind relationship w/environment, reality principle
Superego: voice of conscient + morality, should/not principle
Ego is mediate btwn id and superego, conflict + comprise of
behaviors in wants of id, defence of ego and reality of superego
Little applicate for S+ E
- Humanistic psychology
Personal responsibility, human growth, personal striving, individual
dignity Self actualization is common concept: best they can be and reach
their potential
Terry Orlick stress the importance to understand need + desire of
athletes, respect ehri perception + dieas, view athletic participation
as bigger picture
Carl Rogers: when discrepancy between self perception +
experience, person may deny what is actually happening
Maslow proposed heiarchy of needs in 5 tiered triangular model
Physiological safety need social need exteem need
(internal: self respect + achievement or external: recognition +
status) self actualization
- Cognitive behavioral approach
Some theories suggest behavior determine by interaction
(reward/punishment) rather than inner dries, other say behavior is
learned through experience
Skinner suggest behavior followed by reward would increase
probability or recoccurence and v.v.
Rotter suggest 3 factors influence behavior: situational, generalized,
reinforcement value
People motivated to seek out positive stimulation and avoid
negative interation
Bandura influenced contemporary personality research, through self
efficacy
Social learning theory suggesting ppl are active agents in
shaping behavior thru ovservatinoal learning occurring in
observing, retaining, replicating other’s behavior
Ppl can lean from reward/punishment or observing others
- Leanring theories focus on situation and ind reciprocally influence each
other
- Strict learning behaviorist: Personality is sum of all that you do not of what
you think or feel
- Social learning: ppl are active agents in shaping behavior
- Interactionish approach: dealing w/person-situation debate
1960 research suggest personality is weak predictor of behavior in
specific situations (hence behaviorist) but in 1970 suggest that
situations were equal in prediction
Endler + Magnusson’s interactionish approach was interplay btwn
person + environment determining specific behavior of individual How various traits affect behavior depending on S+E context
If you are about to win finals, you more motivated to strive
harder
Measurement of Personality
- Projective: open ended questions providing subjective perspective, test
taker not provide w/possible answer to test questions, help reveal hidden
feeling/thoughts
- Objective test: highly standardized that doesn’t require interpretation
- Vast majority of personality based research in PA settings occurred in sport
therefore have examples based on sport population
- Trait measure of personality popular in S + E in objective tets
Sport Specific Measures
- Athletic motivation inventory: measure personality + motivation of athletes
participating in competitive sport
First sport specific psychological test to be developed + measures
personality traits w/in specific sport like ability to cope w/emotional
stress, dedication, tratit predictive of athletic success
Correlated w/variables on 16PF (Cattells 16 personality factors)
Validty have mixed results some say those in higher level
competitive have above average mental toughness, others found no
correlation
- Sport competition anxiety test: SCAT developed by Martens in 1971
Trait anxiety si general disposition to respond to vaiety of situation
w/feeligns of concern or worry
High competitive trait anxiety has anxiety among many situations
- Profile of mood states: POMS developed by McNair 1971, designed to
assess sate affect in psychiatric population but popular in sport psyc
6 discrete affective states: tension anxiety, depression dejection,
anger hostility, vigour, fatigue, confusion bewilderment
Score is sum minus vigour
Elite atheltes w/positive affect report iceberg profile: low on
everything but vigour
Thru meta analysis however there was weak support, less than 1%
athletes showed the same mood
Ethical Considerations of Personality measurements - Ethical principles devised by specific organization used by members to
shape professional judgment + behavior
- Integrity + responsibility to protect public well being
- Individual should be informed nature, how results will be used and who will
have access
- Use of test for team selection doesn’t have much support for validity,
breaches in confidentiality and finanacial co
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