ANTH106 Lecture 2: Hallucinogens
2 Jun 2018
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ANTH106 – Week 2: Hallucinogens
What has cannabis research mostly focused on?
• It’s medical uses or
• The harmful health consequences of heavy and uncontrolled use (e.g.
psychotic effects, links with schizophrenia etc.)
• Research on the potential positive, spiritual, mystical, pleasurable effects of
illicit drugs is considered illegitimate – why?
Why no scientific research on these effects of drugs?
• Dichotomy of mind and body in Western thought, emphasis on the primacy of
reason – the mind should always remain clear and rational
• “Aesthetic horror” of drug use in mainstream society – this horror will cause
irrational behaviour etc.
• Pervasive Puritan ethic, fear of hedonism and of Dionysian pleasure
Natural hallucinogenic drugs in pre-industrial Europe:
• Belladonna (deadly nightshade)
• Datura (Jimson weed, thorn apple)
• Mandragora (mandrake)
• These are used in Europe mainly for ritualistic purposes e.g. witches’ Sabbath
• Europe = not that many hallucinogens
New World (the Americas) and hallucinogens:
• The New World has the highest concentration of plant hallucinogens of any
region in the world (mostly in tropical/subtropical zones)
• McKenna: “The New World subtropical/tropical zones are phenomenally rich
in hallucinogenic plants”
• The cults and religious orders that use hallucinogens for ritual, religious and
healing purposes also cluster in the tropical new world
• Examples:
o Ayahuasca → active agent = harmaline → found in Western Amazon
o Datura → active agent = scopolamine → north, central, south America
o Sacred mushrooms → psilocybin → Mexico
o Peyote cactus
Shamanism:
• In the new world, the use of hallucinogens is centred on shamans who play a
dominant role in their societies with respect to religion, ritual and healing
• Definition of shaman: A religious and ritual specialist who gains
control/power over supernatural forces – shaman has ability to enter visionary
trance-states (altered states of consciousness, including visions)
• Shamanic trance can be induced by:
o Tobacco
o Hallucinogenic drugs
o Meditation, hypnosis
o Music, dancing
o Controlled breathing
Functions of shamanic trances:
• Community functions
o Shaman as mediator between the supernatural and the community
o Shaman communicates with spirits to gain control over supernatural
forces for the benefit of the community
o Healing: the shaman uses visionary trances to diagnose illness. Effect
of changing the mental state of the patient – a form of faith healing or
psychotherapy?
• Personal spiritual functions
o Hallucinogens may contribute to the development of religious
awareness. Common religious theme in shamanic trances and the
subject of some research into psychedelics
Andrew Weil on Hallucinogens and Social Controls
• Weil applies Zinberg’s theory to the use of hallucinogens by Amazonian
Indians and emphasizes that the Indians do not appear to have any problems
with hallucinogens, for the following reasons:
o 1. They use the drugs in their natural forms, not refined drugs
o 2. They consider the human desire to periodically experience altered
states of consciousness to be normal, not deviant
o 3. The taking of hallucinogens is usually under the supervision of an
experienced user, such as a shaman, who acts as a spiritual guide
o 4. The use of hallucinogens is highly ritualized – this avoids negative
effects by ‘establishing a framework of order around their use’
o 5. Hallucinogens are not taken for negative reasons (e.g. to rebel
against parents) but for positive reasons
• Following Zinberg’s argument about social controls/rituals, Weil argues that
the Indians do not appear to have any problems with hallucinogens
• A critique of Weil: Weil claims that drug use in the Amazon is not linked to
anti-social behaviour. Excessively romantic view of the absence of social
conflict in Amazonian tribal societies. Shamans are often key figures in intra
and inter-tribal conflict, and they sometimes use their magical power,
enhanced by hallucinogens, malevolently in these conflicts
Hallucinogens in the West:
• Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) first synthesized from ergot (fungus on rye)
by Dr Albert Hofmann
• In 1943, Hofmann accidentally ingested some LSD and experienced vivid
hallucinations. Started testing LSD on himself and volunteers
• First published on the mental effects of LSD in 1947
• Sandoz Laboratories imagined that it could be used by psychiatrists to
investigate schizophrenia, so they started supplying samples to psychiatrists
• Psychotherapist Dr Ronald Sandison gave some LSD to Alfred M Hubbard, a
former US intelligence officer and millionaire
• Hubbard gave Aldous Huxley his first LSD experience in 1955 – hubbard
ordered 43 cases of LSD from Sandoz in 1955 and became a sort of LSD
missionary
Document Summary
Natural hallucinogenic drugs in pre-industrial europe: belladonna (deadly nightshade, datura (jimson weed, thorn apple, mandragora (mandrake, these are used in europe mainly for ritualistic purposes e. g. witches" sabbath, europe = not that many hallucinogens. Effect of changing the mental state of the patient a form of faith healing or psychotherapy: personal spiritual functions, hallucinogens may contribute to the development of religious awareness. Common religious theme in shamanic trances and the subject of some research into psychedelics. Andrew weil on hallucinogens and social controls: weil applies zinberg"s theory to the use of hallucinogens by amazonian. Indians and emphasizes that the indians do not appear to have any problems with hallucinogens, for the following reasons: 1. They use the drugs in their natural forms, not refined drugs: 2. They consider the human desire to periodically experience altered states of consciousness to be normal, not deviant: 3.
