BIOL1003 Lecture Notes - Lecture 7: Pernicious Anemia, Aplastic Anemia, Folate Deficiency

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19 May 2018

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Describe the composition and functions of blood

Functions

Transport of gases, nutrients

and waste products

Oxygen enters blood in lungs and carried to cells

•

CO2 produced by cells, carried in blood to lungs then expelled

•

Ingested nutrients, ions and water form digestive tract to cells

•

Waste products of cells to kidneys for elimination

•

Transport of processed

molecules

Many substances produced in one part of body then transported

in blood to another part for modification

•

Transport of regulatory

products

Blood carried hormones and enzymes that regulate body

processes from one part of the body to another

•

Regulation of pH and osmosis

Buffers help keep blood pH within normal limits in blood

•

Osmotic composition of blood critical for maintaining normal

fluid and ion balance

•

Maintenance of body

temperature

Warm blood transported from interior of body to surface, where

heat is released from the blood

•

Helps regulate body temp

•

Protection against foreign

substances

Certain cells and chems in blood part of immune system

•

Protect against antigens

•

Clot formation

When blood vessels are damaged, clotting protects against

excessive blood loss

•

When tissues damaged, blood clot is first step in tissue repair

and restoration of normal function

•

Composition

Plasma = liquid matrix

Formed elements = cell fragments

Main constituents

Plasma

Composed of water, salts, nutrients, wastes, dissolved gases, plasma

proteins

•

Albumin - maintains osmotic pressure

•

Globulins - immune system

•

Fibrinogen - clotting factor

•

Dissolved proteins

•

Erythrocytes/RBCs

Disk shaped

•

Looks like werthers, biconcave shape increases cells surface area compared

to flat disk shape

•

Larger surface area = easier movement of gases

•

Can bend or fold to decrease size to pass through smaller blood vessels

•

Unable to divide, no nuclei

•

Binds to oxygen, picks up oxygen in lungs and releases it in other

tissues

•

Contains iron to replace small amounts lost in urine and faeces

•

Contains haemoglobin pigment = red colour

•

Transports oxygen and CO2

•

7b)

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11:48 AM

7. Circulatory system Page 1

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Transports oxygen and CO2

•

Leukocytes/WBCs

Spherical

•

Lack haemoglobin

•

Larger than RBCs

•

Contain nuclei

•

Can leave blood and travel through tissues

•

Protects body against pathogens

•

Removes dead cells and debris form tissues by phagocytosis

•

5 types, each with specific functions

•

Neutrophils

•

Basophils

•

Eosinophils

•

Granulocytes

•

Lymphocytes

•

Monocytes

•

Agranulocytes

•

Platelets/thrombocy

tes

Cytoplasm surrounded by plasma membrane

•

Contains granules

•

Smaller than WBC and RBCs

•

Produced in red bone marrow

•

Forms platelet plugs

•

Releases chemicals necessary for blood clotting, prevents blood loss

•

Screen clipping taken: 3/06/2017 12:05 PM

Haematocrit - describes percentage of blood made up of RBCs

7. Circulatory system Page 2

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Explain the mechanism of clotting

When blood vessel severely damaged, blood clotting or coagulation results in clotting

Clot = network of threadlike protein fibres, fibrin, that traps blood cells, platelets and fluid

Activated following injury

○

Clotting factors = proteins in plasma that help form blood clot

Inactive clotting factors come into contact with exposed connective tissue -> activation

Chemicals e.g. thromboplastin released from injured tissues -> activation of clotting

factors. After initial clotting factors activated, then activate other clotting factors.

Results in series of reactions until clotting factor prothrombinase is formed

Chemical reactions can be started in 2 ways

Prothrombinase converts inactive clotting factor Prothrombin to active form thrombin

Thrombin converts plasma protein fibrinogen to fibrin

3 stages of clot formation

At each step, clotting factor activates many additional clotting factors -> clot formation

Most clotting factors manufactured in liver, and many require Vit K for synthesis

Chem reactions require Ca2+ and chems released from platelets

Anticoagulants prevent clotting factors from forming clots under normal conditions

Antithrombin and heparin - inactivate fibrin and no clot forms

When clotting factors activated, anticoagulants can no longer prevent clot formation

Control of clot formation

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Document Summary

Oxygen enters blood in lungs and carried to cells. Co2 produced by cells, carried in blood to lungs then expelled. Ingested nutrients, ions and water form digestive tract to cells. Waste products of cells to kidneys for elimination. Many substances produced in one part of body then transported in blood to another part for modification. Blood carried hormones and enzymes that regulate body processes from one part of the body to another. Buffers help keep blood ph within normal limits in blood. Osmotic composition of blood critical for maintaining normal fluid and ion balance. Warm blood transported from interior of body to surface, where heat is released from the blood. Certain cells and chems in blood part of immune system. When blood vessels are damaged, clotting protects against excessive blood loss. When tissues damaged, blood clot is first step in tissue repair and restoration of normal function. Composed of water, salts, nutrients, wastes, dissolved gases, plasma proteins.

Related Questions

The digestion process begins at the mouth. Food enters and then accessory digestive organs like the tongue, teeth, and salivary glands break down the substance. It then travels through the pharynx and esophagus into the stomach, where the stomach acid further breaks down the food (UXL Complete Health Resource). After that, the food travels through the small and large intestines where a majority of its nutrients are absorbed. The waste then exits through the end of the large intestine which is made up of the rectum and anus. After the teeth assist in chewing, food rolls over the tongue and reaches stomach through the esophagus within 8 seconds. General Tsoâs Chicken and Rice consist of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. However, carbohydrates are digested easily than the fats and proteins. After broken down in the stomach, most of the nutrients are absorbed from the small intestine, and it takes 6 to 8 hours to pass through small intestine. The remaining unabsorbed material, âmoves very slowly through the large intestine where the final absorption of water and other nutrients take placeâ (UXL Complete Health Resource). The parasympathetic nervous system encourages the food to move through the digestive tract and motivates digestion process. The sympathetic nervous system works against the parasympathetic nervous system by decreasing the contraction and relaxation of the digestive tract (Taylor). Mouth produces saliva, which contains amylase. Amylase is key in digesting carbohydrates. The stomach produces hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor, and mucus (Taylor). Hydrochloric acid kills the bacteria and other organisms that enter the stomach, and then continues to activate pepsinogen. Pepsinogen then changes into pepsin, which digests protein peptides. The pancreas produces trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, lipases, and phospholipases. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases digest proteins, whereas lipases, phospholipases digest lipid molecules. Small intestine produces lactase, sucrase, maltase, lipases, and peptidases. Lactase, sucrase, and maltase digest carbohydrates (UXL Complete Health Resource). Saliva glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are the accessory organs of the digestive process. Saliva glands produce mucus and amylase which digests starch into simple sugars and binds food particles together, while lubricating the palette when one swallows. The pancreas produces amylase, lipases, and proteinases etc. These digestive juices are responsible for breaking down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The liver is the largest gland in the body, âIt produces bile salts to emulsify lipids. It detoxifies metabolic end products to protect the bodyâ (UXL Complete Health Resource). Gallbladder stores bile juice. The chicken in the General Tsoâs contains proteins. Proteins cannot be digested in mouth. However, the mouth can physically digest chicken into smaller pieces. These partially digested chicken pieces travel to stomach, where it is digested by pepsin. The pancreas produces trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, lipases, and phospholipases (UXL Complete Health Resource). The chicken is then digested by trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases in the duodenum of the small intestine. After the complete digestion, the chickenâs proteins change into amino acids, which are then absorbed into blood. The rice of the General Tsoâs is a carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are partially digested inside the mouth by amylase. The rest of the rice travels to the stomach where it is digested by pancreatic juices and enzymes that are produced by small intestine. The digestion of the rice produces monosaccharides that absorb into the blood stream. The left over, and undigested parts of the chicken and rice that are useless to the body are excreted by large intestine through rectum.

1) Based on your finding in the Module 3 Report, begin the Module 4 Report by identifying which metabolites are being absorbed and specifically which vessels of the cardiovascular or lymphatic system are the initial vessel of transport from the digestive system. 2) From the point that the specific metabolites are absorbed from the GI tract, trace the path of the resulting metabolites to the following locations in the body for incorporation into the body structure: Metabolites of protein for use in the Gastrocnemius muscle for muscle maintenance. Metabolites of the carbohydrates for energy to contract the cardiac muscle cells. Metabolites of fat to incorporate into the myelin sheaths of the Schwann cells of the Trigeminal nerve that innervates the Masseter muscle. Water for incorporation into the synovial fluid of the hip joint. Iron for incorporation into red blood cells in the bone marrow of the sternum.

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Food that we consume is composed of very complex molecules. During the digestive process these compounds are broken down into smaller and smaller subunits in preparation for use by the body as building blocks needed for the many components of the human body. The digestion process begins at the mouth. Food enters and then accessory digestive organs like the tongue, teeth, and salivary glands break down the substance. It then travels through the pharynx and esophagus into the stomach, where the stomach acid further breaks down the food (UXL Complete Health Resource). After that, the food travels through the small and large intestines where a majority of its nutrients are absorbed. The waste then exits through the end of the large intestine which is made up of the rectum and anus. After the teeth assist in chewing, food rolls over the tongue and reaches stomach through the esophagus within 8 seconds. General Tsoâs Chicken and Rice consist of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. However, carbohydrates are digested easily than the fats and proteins. After broken down in the stomach, most of the nutrients are absorbed from the small intestine, and it takes 6 to 8 hours to pass through small intestine. The remaining unabsorbed material, âmoves very slowly through the large intestine where the final absorption of water and other nutrients take placeâ (UXL Complete Health Resource). The parasympathetic nervous system encourages the food to move through the digestive tract and motivates digestion process. The sympathetic nervous system works against the parasympathetic nervous system by decreasing the contraction and relaxation of the digestive tract (Taylor). Mouth produces saliva, which contains amylase. Amylase is key in digesting carbohydrates. The stomach produces hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor, and mucus (Taylor). Hydrochloric acid kills the bacteria and other organisms that enter the stomach, and then continues to activate pepsinogen. Pepsinogen then changes into pepsin, which digests protein peptides. The pancreas produces trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, lipases, and phospholipases. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases digest proteins, whereas lipases, phospholipases digest lipid molecules. Small intestine produces lactase, sucrase, maltase, lipases, and peptidases. Lactase, sucrase, and maltase digest carbohydrates (UXL Complete Health Resource). Saliva glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are the accessory organs of the digestive process. Saliva glands produce mucus and amylase which digests starch into simple sugars and binds food particles together, while lubricating the palette when one swallows. The pancreas produces amylase, lipases, and proteinases etc. These digestive juices are responsible for breaking down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The liver is the largest gland in the body, âIt produces bile salts to emulsify lipids. It detoxifies metabolic end products to protect the bodyâ (UXL Complete Health Resource). Gallbladder stores bile juice. The chicken in the General Tsoâs contains proteins. Proteins cannot be digested in mouth. However, the mouth can physically digest chicken into smaller pieces. These partially digested chicken pieces travel to stomach, where it is digested by pepsin. The pancreas produces trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, lipases, and phospholipases (UXL Complete Health Resource). The chicken is then digested by trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases in the duodenum of the small intestine. After the complete digestion, the chickenâs proteins change into amino acids, which are then absorbed into blood. The rice of the General Tsoâs is a carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are partially digested inside the mouth by amylase. The rest of the rice travels to the stomach where it is digested by pancreatic juices and enzymes that are produced by small intestine. The digestion of the rice produces monosaccharides that absorb into the blood stream. The left over, and undigested parts of the chicken and rice that are useless to the body are excreted by large intestine through rectum. 1) Based on your finding in the Module 3 Report, begin the Module 4 Report by identifying which metabolites are being absorbed and specifically which vessels of the cardiovascular or lymphatic system are the initial vessel of transport from the digestive system. 2) From the point that the specific metabolites are absorbed from the GI tract, trace the path of the resulting metabolites to the following locations in the body for incorporation into the body structure: Metabolites of protein for use in the Gastrocnemius muscle for muscle maintenance. Metabolites of the carbohydrates for energy to contract the cardiac muscle cells. Metabolites of fat to incorporate into the myelin sheaths of the Schwann cells of the Trigeminal nerve that innervates the Masseter muscle. Water for incorporation into the synovial fluid of the hip joint. Iron for incorporation into red blood cells in the bone marrow of the sternum.

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10. The organs associated with the Alimentary Canal share which similarity/similarities? They all belong to the lymphatic system They all belong to the gastrointestinal system Food does not pass directly through them during the process of digestion Food does pass directly through them during the process of digestion Both B and D \

11. Of the five basic functions of the digestive system, which one occurs first? Excretion Absorption Ingestion Peristalsis Digestion

12. The elimination of indigestible material from the body is called _______________. Peristalsis Absorption Defecation Ingestion

13. The pancreas helps to regulate metabolism and blood sugar levels through the release of insulin. Insulin tells the liver to stop sugar production to keep levels regulated within the blood stream. If a personâs pancreas does not function properly, they have a condition called diabetes, a metabolic disease that often requires monitoring of oneâs diet. People with Type 1 Diabetes have a pancreas with damaged islet cells, meaning no insulin is produced. People with Type 2 Diabetes have a pancreas that produces insulin properly, but their cells are resistant to this insulin due to various factors that often include but are not limited to obesity, lack of exercise, or poor diet choices. Certain foods, specifically starches and sugars, affect diabetics in different ways. Type 1 diabetics must limit their consumption of sugars in order to keep their blood sugar levels stable. Type 1 diabetics often achieve regulation of blood sugars through injections of insulin. Type 2 diabetics must still pay attention to their diets, but not all of them are dependent on manual injections of insulin. Because Type 2 Diabetes is often brought on through a poor diet, Type 2 diabetics are advised to monitor their food choices to prevent weight gain and achieve a more balanced diet overall. Approximately 90% of Americans with diabetes have Type 2. Which are contributing factors to developing Type 1 Diabetes? Poor liver function Poor pancreatic function Sedentary lifestyle All of the above

14. There are five activities that occur within the gastrointestinal system: â¢ Ingestion â the taking in of food or drink â¢ Peristalsis â the movement of food along the digestive tract â¢ Digestion â the breakdown of food and drink by both mechanical and chemical mechanisms â¢ Absorption â the passage of food into the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems â¢ Defecation â the elimination of substances the body canât use Many digestive disorders and diseases can be tied to an activity within the gastrointestinal system. For example, inflammation of the digestive tract, commonly known as inflammatory bowel disease, is an example of a gastrointestinal activity breakdown. An inflamed digestive tract means digestion is painful and hindered in some way, affecting the rest of the gastrointestinal activities coming after it. An inability to break down lactose, or âlactose intolerance,â is another example of a breakdown that can occur within the gastrointestinal system. Another example of a breakdown in gastrointestinal activities is an eating disorder, where food is either withheld or ingested at a fast rate. Some disorders include the elimination of food through vomit, in essence reversing some of the activities of the gastrointestinal system. A final example of a breakdown in gastrointestinal activities is constipation, which can often lead to further problems such as bowel impaction if not corrected immediately. A balanced diet is recommended to keep the gastrointestinal system functioning properly, and many over the counter medications can help to correct some breakdowns if caught early enough. Foodborne illness, or food poisoning, happens when spoiled or contaminated food is consumed. A common symptom of food poisoning is vomiting. Though microbes can move from the stomach and into the intestines after vomiting occurs, the food itself gets thrown up, stopping its travel through the gastrointestinal system. During which activity is the food thrown up? Peristalsis Absorption Ingestion Digestion

15. The skin is a vital organ that covers the entire outside of the body, forming a protective barrier against pathogens and injuries from the environment. The skin is the body's largest organ; covering the entire outside of the body, it is about 2 mm thick and weighs approximately six pounds. It shields the body against heat, light, injury, and infection. The skin also helps regulate body temperature, gathers sensory information from the environment, stores water, fat, and vitamin D, and plays a role in the immune system protecting us from disease. The color, thickness and texture of skin vary over the body. There are two general types of skin; thin and hairy, which is more prevalent on the body, and thick and hairless, which is found on parts of the body that are used heavily and endure a large amount of friction, like the palms of the hands or the soles of the feet. Basically, the skin is comprised of two layers that cover a third fatty layer. These three layers differ in function, thickness, and strength. The outer layer is called the epidermis; it is a tough protective layer that contains the melanin-producing melanocytes. The second layer (located under the epidermis) is called the dermis; it contains nerve endings, sweat glands, oil glands, and hair follicles. Under these two skin layers is a fatty layer of subcutaneous tissue, known as the subcutis or hypodermis. The skin contains many specialized cells and structures: â¢ Basket Cells: Basket cells surround the base of hair follicles and can sense pressure. They are evaluated when assessing overall nerve health and condition. â¢ Blood Vessels: Blood vessels carry nutrients and oxygen-rich blood to the cells that make up the layers of skin and carry away waste products. â¢ Hair Erector Muscle (Arrector Pili Muscle): The arrector pili muscle is a tiny muscle connected to each hair follicle and the skin. When it contracts it causes the hair to stand erect, and a "goosebump" forms on the skin. â¢ Hair Follicle: The hair follicle is a tube-shaped sheath that surrounds the part of the hair that is under the skin and nourishes the hair. It is located in the epidermis and the dermis. â¢ Hair Shaft: The hair shaft is the part of the hair that is above the skin. â¢ Langerhans Cells: These cells attach themselves to antigens that invade damaged skin and alert the immune system to their presence. â¢ Melanocyte: A melanocyte is a cell that produces melanin, and is located in the basal layer of the epidermis. â¢ Merkel Cells: Merkel cells are tactile cells of neuroectodermal origin located in the basal layer of the epidermis. â¢ Pacinian Corpuscle: A pacinian corpuscle is a nerve receptor located in the subcutaneous fatty tissue that responds to pressure and vibration. â¢ Sebaceous Gland: Sebaceous glands are small, sack-shaped glands which release an oily substance onto the hair follicle that coats and protects the hair shaft from becoming brittle. These glands are located in the dermis. â¢ Sensory Nerves: The epidermis is innervated with sensory nerves. These nerves sense and transmit heat, pain, and other noxious sensations. When they are not functioning properly sensations such as numbness, pins-and-needles, pain, tingling, or burning may be felt. When evaluating a skin biopsy, total number, contiguity, diameter, branching, swelling, and overall health of the sensory nerves are assessed. â¢ Stratum Corneum: The stratum corneum is outermost layer of the epidermis, and is comprised of dead skin cells. It protects the living cells beneath it by providing a tough barrier between the environment and the lower layers of the skin. The stratum corneum is useful for diagnosis because in some conditions it will become thinner than normal. â¢ Sweat Gland (Sudoriferous Gland): These glands are located in the epidermis and produce moisture (sweat) that is secreted through tiny ducts onto the surface of the skin (stratum corneum). When sweat evaporates, skin temperature is lowered. If you use a product to moisturize your hair, which part of the integumentary system are you targeting? Hair follicle Hair shaft Blood vessels Melanocyte

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BIOL1003 Lecture Notes - Lecture 7: Pernicious Anemia, Aplastic Anemia, Folate Deficiency

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