ANTH 1150 Lecture Notes - Lecture 7: Exogamy, Endogamy, Feminist Anthropology
2 May 2018
School
Department
Course
Professor
Distinguish between sex and gender
1.
Describe the cultural anthropological approach to human
reproduction as a culturally shaped process that is more
than just a biological fact
2.
Outline several cross-cultural variations in human sexuality
3.
Discuss the universality of gender inequalities and the
gendered division of labour
4.
Compare reproductive regulation methods found in other
societies
5.
Distinguish the different types of exchanges that are made
upon marriage, and compare the implications of these
exchanges
6.
Learning Outcomes:
Chapter 7 (pages 149-171)
Reproduction among mammals itself is mating,
which may involve a random choice of mates or may
be monogamous
○
The institution of marriage among humans is a
cultural universal to the extent we all understand
relationships involving men and women getting
together for mutual support, sex and reproduction
○
The forms marriage takes on the other hand, can be
widely different among humans
○
Human sexuality always falls under some form of
social control, whether it is our budding sexuality as
adolescents, looking for love as young adults, or as
people in a married relationship
○
Most societies tend to use sexuality as a system of
reward and punishment, social control, as well as
recreation and leisure
○
Humans are not the only animals to have a social aspect
surrounding their reproduction, but the extent to which
humans have transformed an essentially biological process
is quite remarkable
•
Social classification and categorization of people in
every society means that legitimate sexuality must
conform to certain parameters
○
Anthropologists have collected a variety of data
exploring human sexuality, gender composition,
marriage customs and family structures
○
Human sexuality is one area where we tend to be
ethnocentric and often have a hard time accepting the
variation we see in the world around us
○
The consequence of sex being possible childbirth, makes it
of concern to many more people that the couple having sex
•
Human Sexuality
Marriage Rules
Most societies have rules specifying which social groups
we could marry within or marry outside of
•
One human universal is the incest taboo, that requires us to
marry outside of our family unit
•
While cousin marriage is fairly common, closer relatives
are generally excluded
•
Some exceptions to this rule exist as in the case of royal
families, such as in traditional Hawaiian society or among
the pharaohs of Egypt, where sibling marriage is approved
in order to preserve a divine bloodline
•
Ex. In our society, sexual contact between first
cousins is considered incestuous. However, in some
societies marriage with a first cousin is encouraged
○
Whether or not a certain form of marriage is considered
incestuous varies from society to society
•
*see pages 155-158 for examples
•
Incest Taboo
For example, if two villages have hostilities between them,
violence may result
•
If people from each village marry the new generation that
is created from these unions provide a family-like alliance
which may reduce hostilities
•
People are less likely to want to attack each other if they
risk harming members of their own family in the process
•
Extending the ties of kinship and beyond one's local
residents is necessary in the long run
•
Anthropologists often focus on the aspect of alliance or how
marriage ties families together
*see pages 158-159
○
These two rules or patterns of marriage generally do
not apply to the same social unit
○
The terms endogamous and exogamous are also
relative, depending on the unit of analysis
○
However, many ethnic groups and social
classes (especially upper classes) tend to be
endogamous, meaning that people are expected
to marry someone inside their own group
!
Ex. North American society is invariably exogamous
at the level of the family
○
When people must marry within a particular group,
anthropologists call this endogamy; when they must marry
outside of a particular group we call it exogamy
1.
In the case of very large social groups or geographic
isolation, endogamy may become almost inevitable
○
Rules of marriage may be enforced or simply the result of
custom
2.
People are often compelled to marry within categories such as
religious groups, racial groups, social class or caste. In some
cultures (such as in India), marriages are often arranged to make
sure children enter into an appropriate relationship.
In many cultures plural forms of marriage are common =
polygamy
•
Marriage of one man to 2+ women = polygyny
•
Marriage of one woman to 2+ men = polyandry
•
Legal term for being married to two people at the same
time = bigamy
•
While in Canada monogamy seems to be normal, it has not
historically been the most preferred form of marriage
The high incidence of divorce and re-marriage in North America
has led social scientists to coin the term serial monogamy, to
characterize the series of relationships one may have throughout
life.
Some transfer of wealth often occurs when people marry
•
Traditionally in North America, women would have a hope
chest of goods to bring to a marriage and often her parents
would pay for the wedding
•
This is a carryover from the idea of dowry or a transfer of
wealth from the bride's family to the groom's family
•
*see pages 167-169
•
The opposite of this custom is referred to as brideprice,
when the groom's family pays money to the bride's family
•
Sometimes the labor is substituted for money and the
practice is called bride service
•
Disputes over these transfers of wealth are common, and
can result in a divorce, injury, or death of a spouse
•
Marriage Exchanges
Sex refers to the biological nature of a persons in
terms of the difference between male and female
reproductive organs, as well as genetic differences
○
Gender refers to the behaviour associated with
distinct sexes, and is a social construct determined by
culture and environment
○
An important and often misunderstood distinction is that of
sex vs gender
•
There are several examples of societies where gender
roles are independent of the sex of the person
○
Sexual differences between men and women are universal,
whereas gender roles vary widely across societies and at
different times within the same society
•
Such women may marry another woman and become
the father of her children
○
The female husband engages in many of the same
activities as a male husband does, including owning
cattle to use for bridewealth payments and even
marrying several wives, if she can afford it
○
She is addressed as "Father", and is treated by her
wives and children in the same way as they treat a
male husband or father
○
Despite her biological sex, she performs the role of a
man in society
○
In this case, the set of roles associated with the male
gender are independent of the sex of the person
carrying out those roles
○
Nuer of Sudan and Ethiopia: biological females are
sometimes considered to be men
•
In this society, and older women (who might already
have a husband and children) would be able to take a
wife, who would do her cooking and perform other
kinds of domestic duties
○
In return, the trader would provide financial support
to her wide
○
Instead, she would select a male sexual partner
for her wide so that this couple could produce
children for the women who was the trader
!
This sexual partner could be trader's own son
or a friend of the family, but the wife would
not cook for him or live in the same house
!
The female trader would be the legal father of
those children, who might end up helping her
in the business as they grow up
!
However, unlike lesbian relation, the female trader
would not sleep with her female partner
○
Moreover, the female trader (not the biological
father) would have the rights and obligations of
a father
!
The woman (trader) would be the sociological
father (or pater)
!
In the case of the Dahomey, the wife of the female
trader has domestic rights and obligations, but the
sexual rights are conferred on someone else
○
Dahomey in Western Africa: women sold goods in the
market place and some women became important traders
•
Another example of a very different kind of separation of
domestic and kinship rights is the case of the Nuer
•
They dressed in women's clothing, worked with
women, and even married men (usually as a second
wife)
○
By engaging in the activities of women, they become
women, regardless of their sex
○
Such cross-gender females were a distinct and
respected gender classification
○
Berdache among several North American native societies:
men who did not conform to society's expectations for
masculine behaviour instead engaged in women's activities
and became men-women (Berdache)
•
Although there are some universal themes in gender
distinctions, these themes can be explained through
cultural or environmental reasoning
○
It is culture, not nature, which shapes the roles that
men and women play in society
○
Gender is continually subject to change, and with the
exception of child-bearing, there are few roles in
society that cannot be filled by both males and
females
○
Concepts of gender are based on but not reducible to the
biological differences between men and women
•
Sex vs. Gender
Socialization beings at birth, and is internalized by
individuals through family, language, education and
the community
○
Gender differences are learned through socialization
○
Socialization or enculturation is the process by which
people learn the appropriate rules of their society including
acceptable behaviour, attitudes, and values
•
From the moment a child is born, they are handled
and treated in distinct ways according to their
biological sex
○
The manner in which children are held, played with,
spoken to, and dressed indicate the expectations that
society has for them
○
Parents form all societies train their children in the social
behaviour or gender roles considered appropriate for boys
and girls, men and women
•
This leads to gender stereotypes, in which certain
types of behaviour, interests, abilities, and values are
considered to be based on a person's sex
○
Through social rewards and punishment, females and males
learn which behaviour is appropriate for their biological
sex
•
They are taught to care for their younger siblings,
cook and follow in their mother's footsteps
○
Boys are often fussed over by their mothers and
sisters
○
They are told to be a man and to be strong/brave
○
When group-up girls join their husband's household
and start to have their own children, they continue
the pattern of socialization by treating their sons and
daughters differently according to their sex
○
Ex. In traditional Korean society, boys are valued more
than girls, and as a result girls are given less attention
•
Men were largely the bread-winners, leaving
home each day to earn a living
!
A woman's place was considered to be in the
home
!
In the household, women were expected to do
the domestic chores including cooking,
cleaning and caring for the children
!
Men were responsible for the heavy household
labour such as mowing the lawn, taking out the
garbage, or fixing the car
!
Although children were socialized to accept
these roles, when they became adults they
altered these roles in order to adapt to changing
circumstances
!
50 years ago there were well-defined differences in
gender roles
○
Nowadays it is common for both men and women to
work, are there is a growing acceptance for men to
stay at home and care for the children
○
It is not unusual to see women in the yard and men in
the kitchen
○
Gender roles are highly fluid and constantly changing
•
Gender Socialization
Whom a person chooses to have sex with, whether
they engage in sex with the same or opposite sex,
how they perform the sexual activity, what it means
and even what is considered to be a sexual activity,
are all influenced by social and cultural
considerations
○
This is exemplified by the vast range of sexual norms
through out the world
○
Sexual restrictions differ greatly from society to
society
○
In contrast, most Islamic societies are far more
restrictive, especially concerning female
sexuality
!
Ex. Among the Tikopia of Polynesia (~40 years ago)
sexual freedom was quite normal among young men
and women, and it is still common for women to
have several lovers before marriage
○
Sex may be a biological drive, but it is also highly
influenced by social and cultural factors
•
In our own society we tend to generalize sexual
relations
○
We distinguish between heterosexuals and
homosexuals, and homosexuality is considered by
many to be a form of deviance
○
However, the notion of homosexuality per se does
not exist in some societies
○
Ex. Among Etoro and Sambia of Papua New Guinea
(*see pages 151-152) sexual activity between young
boys and older men is not labelled as homosexual (as
it would be in Western society) because such
distinction does not exist, or is at least defined in a
different way
○
Some-sex sexual relations are universal, but how
these relationships are interpreted by society is
highly varied
○
Just as sexual restrictions vary cross-culturally, so do the
connections between sexuality and gender
•
Gender and Sexuality
Why are men so often associated with hunting and
war, and women with gathering, food preparation
and child-rearing?
○
For years, anthropologists have tried to understand the
reasons behind apparent universal themes in the sexual
division of labour
•
Thus, the fact that cross-culturally men are often
associated with more physically demanding more is
due to their greater physical strength
○
Some argue that females are confined to the
household due to maternal responsibilities
○
However, this does not explain that many activities
normally performed by women require considerable
strength
○
One theory suggests that sexual division of labour can be
explained on the basis of sexual dimorphism, in which
males are generally built larger than females
•
This is also a growing trend in many Western
industrialized countries, in which traditional male
and female jobs are now filled by both men and
women
○
Ex. Nursing was once strictly defined as a female
job, yet today many men are choosing nursing as a
career
○
Nowadays in Canada, there are few jobs that are
restricted solely to one gender, although there are
still sectors of the economy that are predominantly
male or female
○
Interestingly, despite many jobs being open for
women very few choose to participate in certain
traditionally male trades
○
The social climate around certain kinds of work
makes them less desirable for men or women even
when no other reasons prevent them from doing that
work
○
However, despite the pronounced gender-based division of
labour in many societies, there are many instances where
such activities greatly overlap
•
Raising children in arguable the most important job
in society, yet it is devalues in many societies and
buried in the shadow of politics, economics and
warfare
○
There are many theories which attempt to explain
these inequalities
○
Although theories on the division of labour may account
for why men and women tend to engage in certain
activities, they do not explain why traditional female roles
are considered to be less important than traditional male
roles
•
This photo depicts a common fertility fetish artifact
that was generally thought to be an exaggeration of
female features
○
Recently, female anthropologists noticed that they
were in fact anatomically correct figures of pregnant
women when viewed from the self perspective of a
pregnant woman
○
There is a good chance these were made my pregnant
women and not men
○
*see photo: Paleolithic Ceramic Venus "Fertility" Figurine
•
Gender and the Division of Labour
Yet there are many cultures where men control
economic and political power and women are
denigrated and devalues
○
There is nothing biological about the gender-based
allocation of economic, social and political rights
○
Although in some societies males are females are
considered to be of relatively equal status, no cultures have
been documented where women are elevated politically or
economically at the expense of men
•
In such situations, matrilocal residence patterns
are common, which keep the female family
members together
!
Thus, in favourable environments with little
competition for resources, sexual equality prevails
since there is less reliance on male warriors for
protection
○
In such societies, male domination and gender
inequalities are common
!
On the other hand, in unfavourable environments
where resources are scarce, patrilocal residence
pattern are beneficial since they keep male family
members united in times of ware
○
*see Unit 8 for definitions
○
Some anthropologists argue that male domination over
women is a response to stress with respect to the food
supply and warfare
•
The domestic sphere related to the world of the
household, reproduction and child-rearing, whereas
the public sphere includes citizenship, religion,
public culture and the state
○
Societies with rigid domestic-public distinctions,
such as Islamic societies that practice seclusion, or
Victorian Europe and the US, devalue the private
sphere and the women with whom they are
associated
○
On the other hand, societies with less of a domestic-
public dichotomy such as Ju/'hoansi and other
foragers, tend to have less gender stratification
○
Another theory attributes gender inequalities to the
domestic-public dichotomy
•
However, each situation is unique with its own
historical, cultural and environmental influences and
it is difficult to apply one theory to all societies
○
There are many other theories which try to explain this
pattern male-dominance in society
•
Despite many attempts to understand gender roles and
sexual inequality from a cross-cultural perspective, for
many years these topics were ignored by anthropologists
who themselves came from male-dominated societies
•
At first termed the anthropology of women, many
feminist anthropologists conducted studies on the
lives and experiences of women
○
By the 1980s the focus shifted to the study of gender
and a concern for both sexes and their various
relations
○
Nowadays there is a vast collection of research,
ranging from studies of lesbian expression to
violence against women
○
Anthropologists have also taken a more critical look
at how their discipline has interpreted gender roles in
the past, examining cases where the anthropologists'
own gender bias may have altered their interpretation
of many topics
○
In many cases the maleness or femaleness of the
researcher limits their access to another culture
○
Western male anthropologists for example, would
not easily gain access to the world of females living
in Muslim societies
○
Early ethnographies written by male anthropologists
often address the world of men in detail but leave out
much of what goes on among women
○
Feminist anthropology emerged in the 1970s in response to
this oversight
•
Gender Inequalities and Feminist Anthropology
Sex, Gender & Marriage
Saturday,*March*3,*2018
6:39*PM
Distinguish between sex and gender1.
Describe the cultural anthropological approach to human
reproduction as a culturally shaped process that is more
than just a biological fact
2.
Outline several cross-cultural variations in human sexuality3.
Discuss the universality of gender inequalities and the
gendered division of labour
4.
Compare reproductive regulation methods found in other
societies
5.
Distinguish the different types of exchanges that are made
upon marriage, and compare the implications of these
exchanges
6.
Learning Outcomes:
Chapter 7 (pages 149-171)
Reproduction among mammals itself is mating,
which may involve a random choice of mates or may
be monogamous
○
The institution of marriage among humans is a
cultural universal to the extent we all understand
relationships involving men and women getting
together for mutual support, sex and reproduction
○
The forms marriage takes on the other hand, can be
widely different among humans
○
Human sexuality always falls under some form of
social control, whether it is our budding sexuality as
adolescents, looking for love as young adults, or as
people in a married relationship
○
Most societies tend to use sexuality as a system of
reward and punishment, social control, as well as
recreation and leisure
○
Humans are not the only animals to have a social aspect
surrounding their reproduction, but the extent to which
humans have transformed an essentially biological process
is quite remarkable
•
Social classification and categorization of people in
every society means that legitimate sexuality must
conform to certain parameters
○
Anthropologists have collected a variety of data
exploring human sexuality, gender composition,
marriage customs and family structures
○
Human sexuality is one area where we tend to be
ethnocentric and often have a hard time accepting the
variation we see in the world around us
○
The consequence of sex being possible childbirth, makes it
of concern to many more people that the couple having sex
•
Human Sexuality
Marriage Rules
Most societies have rules specifying which social groups
we could marry within or marry outside of
•
One human universal is the incest taboo, that requires us to
marry outside of our family unit
•
While cousin marriage is fairly common, closer relatives
are generally excluded
•
Some exceptions to this rule exist as in the case of royal
families, such as in traditional Hawaiian society or among
the pharaohs of Egypt, where sibling marriage is approved
in order to preserve a divine bloodline
•
Ex. In our society, sexual contact between first
cousins is considered incestuous. However, in some
societies marriage with a first cousin is encouraged
○
Whether or not a certain form of marriage is considered
incestuous varies from society to society
•
*see pages 155-158 for examples
•
Incest Taboo
For example, if two villages have hostilities between them,
violence may result
•
If people from each village marry the new generation that
is created from these unions provide a family-like alliance
which may reduce hostilities
•
People are less likely to want to attack each other if they
risk harming members of their own family in the process
•
Extending the ties of kinship and beyond one's local
residents is necessary in the long run
•
Anthropologists often focus on the aspect of alliance or how
marriage ties families together
*see pages 158-159
○
These two rules or patterns of marriage generally do
not apply to the same social unit
○
The terms endogamous and exogamous are also
relative, depending on the unit of analysis
○
However, many ethnic groups and social
classes (especially upper classes) tend to be
endogamous, meaning that people are expected
to marry someone inside their own group
!
Ex. North American society is invariably exogamous
at the level of the family
○
When people must marry within a particular group,
anthropologists call this endogamy; when they must marry
outside of a particular group we call it exogamy
1.
In the case of very large social groups or geographic
isolation, endogamy may become almost inevitable
○
Rules of marriage may be enforced or simply the result of
custom
2.
People are often compelled to marry within categories such as
religious groups, racial groups, social class or caste. In some
cultures (such as in India), marriages are often arranged to make
sure children enter into an appropriate relationship.
In many cultures plural forms of marriage are common =
polygamy
•
Marriage of one man to 2+ women = polygyny
•
Marriage of one woman to 2+ men = polyandry
•
Legal term for being married to two people at the same
time = bigamy
•
While in Canada monogamy seems to be normal, it has not
historically been the most preferred form of marriage
The high incidence of divorce and re-marriage in North America
has led social scientists to coin the term serial monogamy, to
characterize the series of relationships one may have throughout
life.
Some transfer of wealth often occurs when people marry
•
Traditionally in North America, women would have a hope
chest of goods to bring to a marriage and often her parents
would pay for the wedding
•
This is a carryover from the idea of dowry or a transfer of
wealth from the bride's family to the groom's family
•
*see pages 167-169
•
The opposite of this custom is referred to as brideprice,
when the groom's family pays money to the bride's family
•
Sometimes the labor is substituted for money and the
practice is called bride service
•
Disputes over these transfers of wealth are common, and
can result in a divorce, injury, or death of a spouse
•
Marriage Exchanges
Sex refers to the biological nature of a persons in
terms of the difference between male and female
reproductive organs, as well as genetic differences
○
Gender refers to the behaviour associated with
distinct sexes, and is a social construct determined by
culture and environment
○
An important and often misunderstood distinction is that of
sex vs gender
•
There are several examples of societies where gender
roles are independent of the sex of the person
○
Sexual differences between men and women are universal,
whereas gender roles vary widely across societies and at
different times within the same society
•
Such women may marry another woman and become
the father of her children
○
The female husband engages in many of the same
activities as a male husband does, including owning
cattle to use for bridewealth payments and even
marrying several wives, if she can afford it
○
She is addressed as "Father", and is treated by her
wives and children in the same way as they treat a
male husband or father
○
Despite her biological sex, she performs the role of a
man in society
○
In this case, the set of roles associated with the male
gender are independent of the sex of the person
carrying out those roles
○
Nuer of Sudan and Ethiopia: biological females are
sometimes considered to be men
•
In this society, and older women (who might already
have a husband and children) would be able to take a
wife, who would do her cooking and perform other
kinds of domestic duties
○
In return, the trader would provide financial support
to her wide
○
Instead, she would select a male sexual partner
for her wide so that this couple could produce
children for the women who was the trader
!
This sexual partner could be trader's own son
or a friend of the family, but the wife would
not cook for him or live in the same house
!
The female trader would be the legal father of
those children, who might end up helping her
in the business as they grow up
!
However, unlike lesbian relation, the female trader
would not sleep with her female partner
○
Moreover, the female trader (not the biological
father) would have the rights and obligations of
a father
!
The woman (trader) would be the sociological
father (or pater)
!
In the case of the Dahomey, the wife of the female
trader has domestic rights and obligations, but the
sexual rights are conferred on someone else
○
Dahomey in Western Africa: women sold goods in the
market place and some women became important traders
•
Another example of a very different kind of separation of
domestic and kinship rights is the case of the Nuer
•
They dressed in women's clothing, worked with
women, and even married men (usually as a second
wife)
○
By engaging in the activities of women, they become
women, regardless of their sex
○
Such cross-gender females were a distinct and
respected gender classification
○
Berdache among several North American native societies:
men who did not conform to society's expectations for
masculine behaviour instead engaged in women's activities
and became men-women (Berdache)
•
Although there are some universal themes in gender
distinctions, these themes can be explained through
cultural or environmental reasoning
○
It is culture, not nature, which shapes the roles that
men and women play in society
○
Gender is continually subject to change, and with the
exception of child-bearing, there are few roles in
society that cannot be filled by both males and
females
○
Concepts of gender are based on but not reducible to the
biological differences between men and women
•
Sex vs. Gender
Socialization beings at birth, and is internalized by
individuals through family, language, education and
the community
○
Gender differences are learned through socialization
○
Socialization or enculturation is the process by which
people learn the appropriate rules of their society including
acceptable behaviour, attitudes, and values
•
From the moment a child is born, they are handled
and treated in distinct ways according to their
biological sex
○
The manner in which children are held, played with,
spoken to, and dressed indicate the expectations that
society has for them
○
Parents form all societies train their children in the social
behaviour or gender roles considered appropriate for boys
and girls, men and women
•
This leads to gender stereotypes, in which certain
types of behaviour, interests, abilities, and values are
considered to be based on a person's sex
○
Through social rewards and punishment, females and males
learn which behaviour is appropriate for their biological
sex
•
They are taught to care for their younger siblings,
cook and follow in their mother's footsteps
○
Boys are often fussed over by their mothers and
sisters
○
They are told to be a man and to be strong/brave
○
When group-up girls join their husband's household
and start to have their own children, they continue
the pattern of socialization by treating their sons and
daughters differently according to their sex
○
Ex. In traditional Korean society, boys are valued more
than girls, and as a result girls are given less attention
•
Men were largely the bread-winners, leaving
home each day to earn a living
!
A woman's place was considered to be in the
home
!
In the household, women were expected to do
the domestic chores including cooking,
cleaning and caring for the children
!
Men were responsible for the heavy household
labour such as mowing the lawn, taking out the
garbage, or fixing the car
!
Although children were socialized to accept
these roles, when they became adults they
altered these roles in order to adapt to changing
circumstances
!
50 years ago there were well-defined differences in
gender roles
○
Nowadays it is common for both men and women to
work, are there is a growing acceptance for men to
stay at home and care for the children
○
It is not unusual to see women in the yard and men in
the kitchen
○
Gender roles are highly fluid and constantly changing
•
Gender Socialization
Whom a person chooses to have sex with, whether
they engage in sex with the same or opposite sex,
how they perform the sexual activity, what it means
and even what is considered to be a sexual activity,
are all influenced by social and cultural
considerations
○
This is exemplified by the vast range of sexual norms
through out the world
○
Sexual restrictions differ greatly from society to
society
○
In contrast, most Islamic societies are far more
restrictive, especially concerning female
sexuality
!
Ex. Among the Tikopia of Polynesia (~40 years ago)
sexual freedom was quite normal among young men
and women, and it is still common for women to
have several lovers before marriage
○
Sex may be a biological drive, but it is also highly
influenced by social and cultural factors
•
In our own society we tend to generalize sexual
relations
○
We distinguish between heterosexuals and
homosexuals, and homosexuality is considered by
many to be a form of deviance
○
However, the notion of homosexuality per se does
not exist in some societies
○
Ex. Among Etoro and Sambia of Papua New Guinea
(*see pages 151-152) sexual activity between young
boys and older men is not labelled as homosexual (as
it would be in Western society) because such
distinction does not exist, or is at least defined in a
different way
○
Some-sex sexual relations are universal, but how
these relationships are interpreted by society is
highly varied
○
Just as sexual restrictions vary cross-culturally, so do the
connections between sexuality and gender
•
Gender and Sexuality
Why are men so often associated with hunting and
war, and women with gathering, food preparation
and child-rearing?
○
For years, anthropologists have tried to understand the
reasons behind apparent universal themes in the sexual
division of labour
•
Thus, the fact that cross-culturally men are often
associated with more physically demanding more is
due to their greater physical strength
○
Some argue that females are confined to the
household due to maternal responsibilities
○
However, this does not explain that many activities
normally performed by women require considerable
strength
○
One theory suggests that sexual division of labour can be
explained on the basis of sexual dimorphism, in which
males are generally built larger than females
•
This is also a growing trend in many Western
industrialized countries, in which traditional male
and female jobs are now filled by both men and
women
○
Ex. Nursing was once strictly defined as a female
job, yet today many men are choosing nursing as a
career
○
Nowadays in Canada, there are few jobs that are
restricted solely to one gender, although there are
still sectors of the economy that are predominantly
male or female
○
Interestingly, despite many jobs being open for
women very few choose to participate in certain
traditionally male trades
○
The social climate around certain kinds of work
makes them less desirable for men or women even
when no other reasons prevent them from doing that
work
○
However, despite the pronounced gender-based division of
labour in many societies, there are many instances where
such activities greatly overlap
•
Raising children in arguable the most important job
in society, yet it is devalues in many societies and
buried in the shadow of politics, economics and
warfare
○
There are many theories which attempt to explain
these inequalities
○
Although theories on the division of labour may account
for why men and women tend to engage in certain
activities, they do not explain why traditional female roles
are considered to be less important than traditional male
roles
•
This photo depicts a common fertility fetish artifact
that was generally thought to be an exaggeration of
female features
○
Recently, female anthropologists noticed that they
were in fact anatomically correct figures of pregnant
women when viewed from the self perspective of a
pregnant woman
○
There is a good chance these were made my pregnant
women and not men
○
*see photo: Paleolithic Ceramic Venus "Fertility" Figurine
•
Gender and the Division of Labour
Yet there are many cultures where men control
economic and political power and women are
denigrated and devalues
○
There is nothing biological about the gender-based
allocation of economic, social and political rights
○
Although in some societies males are females are
considered to be of relatively equal status, no cultures have
been documented where women are elevated politically or
economically at the expense of men
•
In such situations, matrilocal residence patterns
are common, which keep the female family
members together
!
Thus, in favourable environments with little
competition for resources, sexual equality prevails
since there is less reliance on male warriors for
protection
○
In such societies, male domination and gender
inequalities are common
!
On the other hand, in unfavourable environments
where resources are scarce, patrilocal residence
pattern are beneficial since they keep male family
members united in times of ware
○
*see Unit 8 for definitions
○
Some anthropologists argue that male domination over
women is a response to stress with respect to the food
supply and warfare
•
The domestic sphere related to the world of the
household, reproduction and child-rearing, whereas
the public sphere includes citizenship, religion,
public culture and the state
○
Societies with rigid domestic-public distinctions,
such as Islamic societies that practice seclusion, or
Victorian Europe and the US, devalue the private
sphere and the women with whom they are
associated
○
On the other hand, societies with less of a domestic-
public dichotomy such as Ju/'hoansi and other
foragers, tend to have less gender stratification
○
Another theory attributes gender inequalities to the
domestic-public dichotomy
•
However, each situation is unique with its own
historical, cultural and environmental influences and
it is difficult to apply one theory to all societies
○
There are many other theories which try to explain this
pattern male-dominance in society
•
Despite many attempts to understand gender roles and
sexual inequality from a cross-cultural perspective, for
many years these topics were ignored by anthropologists
who themselves came from male-dominated societies
•
At first termed the anthropology of women, many
feminist anthropologists conducted studies on the
lives and experiences of women
○
By the 1980s the focus shifted to the study of gender
and a concern for both sexes and their various
relations
○
Nowadays there is a vast collection of research,
ranging from studies of lesbian expression to
violence against women
○
Anthropologists have also taken a more critical look
at how their discipline has interpreted gender roles in
the past, examining cases where the anthropologists'
own gender bias may have altered their interpretation
of many topics
○
In many cases the maleness or femaleness of the
researcher limits their access to another culture
○
Western male anthropologists for example, would
not easily gain access to the world of females living
in Muslim societies
○
Early ethnographies written by male anthropologists
often address the world of men in detail but leave out
much of what goes on among women
○
Feminist anthropology emerged in the 1970s in response to
this oversight
•
Gender Inequalities and Feminist Anthropology
Sex, Gender & Marriage
Saturday,*March*3,*2018 6:39*PM
Distinguish between sex and gender1.
Describe the cultural anthropological approach to human
reproduction as a culturally shaped process that is more
than just a biological fact
2.
Outline several cross-cultural variations in human sexuality3.
Discuss the universality of gender inequalities and the
gendered division of labour
4.
Compare reproductive regulation methods found in other
societies
5.
Distinguish the different types of exchanges that are made
upon marriage, and compare the implications of these
exchanges
6.
Learning Outcomes:
Chapter 7 (pages 149-171)
Reproduction among mammals itself is mating,
which may involve a random choice of mates or may
be monogamous
○
The institution of marriage among humans is a
cultural universal to the extent we all understand
relationships involving men and women getting
together for mutual support, sex and reproduction
○
The forms marriage takes on the other hand, can be
widely different among humans
○
Human sexuality always falls under some form of
social control, whether it is our budding sexuality as
adolescents, looking for love as young adults, or as
people in a married relationship
○
Most societies tend to use sexuality as a system of
reward and punishment, social control, as well as
recreation and leisure
○
Humans are not the only animals to have a social aspect
surrounding their reproduction, but the extent to which
humans have transformed an essentially biological process
is quite remarkable
•
Social classification and categorization of people in
every society means that legitimate sexuality must
conform to certain parameters
○
Anthropologists have collected a variety of data
exploring human sexuality, gender composition,
marriage customs and family structures
○
Human sexuality is one area where we tend to be
ethnocentric and often have a hard time accepting the
variation we see in the world around us
○
The consequence of sex being possible childbirth, makes it
of concern to many more people that the couple having sex
•
Human Sexuality
Marriage Rules
Most societies have rules specifying which social groups
we could marry within or marry outside of
•
One human universal is the incest taboo, that requires us to
marry outside of our family unit
•
While cousin marriage is fairly common, closer relatives
are generally excluded
•
Some exceptions to this rule exist as in the case of royal
families, such as in traditional Hawaiian society or among
the pharaohs of Egypt, where sibling marriage is approved
in order to preserve a divine bloodline
•
Ex. In our society, sexual contact between first
cousins is considered incestuous. However, in some
societies marriage with a first cousin is encouraged
○
Whether or not a certain form of marriage is considered
incestuous varies from society to society
•
*see pages 155-158 for examples
•
Incest Taboo
For example, if two villages have hostilities between them,
violence may result
•
If people from each village marry the new generation that
is created from these unions provide a family-like alliance
which may reduce hostilities
•
People are less likely to want to attack each other if they
risk harming members of their own family in the process
•
Extending the ties of kinship and beyond one's local
residents is necessary in the long run
•
Anthropologists often focus on the aspect of alliance or how
marriage ties families together
*see pages 158-159
○
These two rules or patterns of marriage generally do
not apply to the same social unit
○
The terms endogamous and exogamous are also
relative, depending on the unit of analysis
○
However, many ethnic groups and social
classes (especially upper classes) tend to be
endogamous, meaning that people are expected
to marry someone inside their own group
!
Ex. North American society is invariably exogamous
at the level of the family
○
When people must marry within a particular group,
anthropologists call this endogamy; when they must marry
outside of a particular group we call it exogamy
1.
In the case of very large social groups or geographic
isolation, endogamy may become almost inevitable
○
Rules of marriage may be enforced or simply the result of
custom
2.
People are often compelled to marry within categories such as
religious groups, racial groups, social class or caste. In some
cultures (such as in India), marriages are often arranged to make
sure children enter into an appropriate relationship.
In many cultures plural forms of marriage are common =
polygamy
•
Marriage of one man to 2+ women = polygyny
•
Marriage of one woman to 2+ men = polyandry
•
Legal term for being married to two people at the same
time = bigamy
•
While in Canada monogamy seems to be normal, it has not
historically been the most preferred form of marriage
The high incidence of divorce and re-marriage in North America
has led social scientists to coin the term serial monogamy, to
characterize the series of relationships one may have throughout
life.
Some transfer of wealth often occurs when people marry
•
Traditionally in North America, women would have a hope
chest of goods to bring to a marriage and often her parents
would pay for the wedding
•
This is a carryover from the idea of dowry or a transfer of
wealth from the bride's family to the groom's family
•
*see pages 167-169
•
The opposite of this custom is referred to as brideprice,
when the groom's family pays money to the bride's family
•
Sometimes the labor is substituted for money and the
practice is called bride service
•
Disputes over these transfers of wealth are common, and
can result in a divorce, injury, or death of a spouse
•
Marriage Exchanges
Sex refers to the biological nature of a persons in
terms of the difference between male and female
reproductive organs, as well as genetic differences
○
Gender refers to the behaviour associated with
distinct sexes, and is a social construct determined by
culture and environment
○
An important and often misunderstood distinction is that of
sex vs gender
•
There are several examples of societies where gender
roles are independent of the sex of the person
○
Sexual differences between men and women are universal,
whereas gender roles vary widely across societies and at
different times within the same society
•
Such women may marry another woman and become
the father of her children
○
The female husband engages in many of the same
activities as a male husband does, including owning
cattle to use for bridewealth payments and even
marrying several wives, if she can afford it
○
She is addressed as "Father", and is treated by her
wives and children in the same way as they treat a
male husband or father
○
Despite her biological sex, she performs the role of a
man in society
○
In this case, the set of roles associated with the male
gender are independent of the sex of the person
carrying out those roles
○
Nuer of Sudan and Ethiopia: biological females are
sometimes considered to be men
•
In this society, and older women (who might already
have a husband and children) would be able to take a
wife, who would do her cooking and perform other
kinds of domestic duties
○
In return, the trader would provide financial support
to her wide
○
Instead, she would select a male sexual partner
for her wide so that this couple could produce
children for the women who was the trader
!
This sexual partner could be trader's own son
or a friend of the family, but the wife would
not cook for him or live in the same house
!
The female trader would be the legal father of
those children, who might end up helping her
in the business as they grow up
!
However, unlike lesbian relation, the female trader
would not sleep with her female partner
○
Moreover, the female trader (not the biological
father) would have the rights and obligations of
a father
!
The woman (trader) would be the sociological
father (or pater)
!
In the case of the Dahomey, the wife of the female
trader has domestic rights and obligations, but the
sexual rights are conferred on someone else
○
Dahomey in Western Africa: women sold goods in the
market place and some women became important traders
•
Another example of a very different kind of separation of
domestic and kinship rights is the case of the Nuer
•
They dressed in women's clothing, worked with
women, and even married men (usually as a second
wife)
○
By engaging in the activities of women, they become
women, regardless of their sex
○
Such cross-gender females were a distinct and
respected gender classification
○
Berdache among several North American native societies:
men who did not conform to society's expectations for
masculine behaviour instead engaged in women's activities
and became men-women (Berdache)
•
Although there are some universal themes in gender
distinctions, these themes can be explained through
cultural or environmental reasoning
○
It is culture, not nature, which shapes the roles that
men and women play in society
○
Gender is continually subject to change, and with the
exception of child-bearing, there are few roles in
society that cannot be filled by both males and
females
○
Concepts of gender are based on but not reducible to the
biological differences between men and women
•
Sex vs. Gender
Socialization beings at birth, and is internalized by
individuals through family, language, education and
the community
○
Gender differences are learned through socialization
○
Socialization or enculturation is the process by which
people learn the appropriate rules of their society including
acceptable behaviour, attitudes, and values
•
From the moment a child is born, they are handled
and treated in distinct ways according to their
biological sex
○
The manner in which children are held, played with,
spoken to, and dressed indicate the expectations that
society has for them
○
Parents form all societies train their children in the social
behaviour or gender roles considered appropriate for boys
and girls, men and women
•
This leads to gender stereotypes, in which certain
types of behaviour, interests, abilities, and values are
considered to be based on a person's sex
○
Through social rewards and punishment, females and males
learn which behaviour is appropriate for their biological
sex
•
They are taught to care for their younger siblings,
cook and follow in their mother's footsteps
○
Boys are often fussed over by their mothers and
sisters
○
They are told to be a man and to be strong/brave
○
When group-up girls join their husband's household
and start to have their own children, they continue
the pattern of socialization by treating their sons and
daughters differently according to their sex
○
Ex. In traditional Korean society, boys are valued more
than girls, and as a result girls are given less attention
•
Men were largely the bread-winners, leaving
home each day to earn a living
!
A woman's place was considered to be in the
home
!
In the household, women were expected to do
the domestic chores including cooking,
cleaning and caring for the children
!
Men were responsible for the heavy household
labour such as mowing the lawn, taking out the
garbage, or fixing the car
!
Although children were socialized to accept
these roles, when they became adults they
altered these roles in order to adapt to changing
circumstances
!
50 years ago there were well-defined differences in
gender roles
○
Nowadays it is common for both men and women to
work, are there is a growing acceptance for men to
stay at home and care for the children
○
It is not unusual to see women in the yard and men in
the kitchen
○
Gender roles are highly fluid and constantly changing
•
Gender Socialization
Whom a person chooses to have sex with, whether
they engage in sex with the same or opposite sex,
how they perform the sexual activity, what it means
and even what is considered to be a sexual activity,
are all influenced by social and cultural
considerations
○
This is exemplified by the vast range of sexual norms
through out the world
○
Sexual restrictions differ greatly from society to
society
○
In contrast, most Islamic societies are far more
restrictive, especially concerning female
sexuality
!
Ex. Among the Tikopia of Polynesia (~40 years ago)
sexual freedom was quite normal among young men
and women, and it is still common for women to
have several lovers before marriage
○
Sex may be a biological drive, but it is also highly
influenced by social and cultural factors
•
In our own society we tend to generalize sexual
relations
○
We distinguish between heterosexuals and
homosexuals, and homosexuality is considered by
many to be a form of deviance
○
However, the notion of homosexuality per se does
not exist in some societies
○
Ex. Among Etoro and Sambia of Papua New Guinea
(*see pages 151-152) sexual activity between young
boys and older men is not labelled as homosexual (as
it would be in Western society) because such
distinction does not exist, or is at least defined in a
different way
○
Some-sex sexual relations are universal, but how
these relationships are interpreted by society is
highly varied
○
Just as sexual restrictions vary cross-culturally, so do the
connections between sexuality and gender
•
Gender and Sexuality
Why are men so often associated with hunting and
war, and women with gathering, food preparation
and child-rearing?
○
For years, anthropologists have tried to understand the
reasons behind apparent universal themes in the sexual
division of labour
•
Thus, the fact that cross-culturally men are often
associated with more physically demanding more is
due to their greater physical strength
○
Some argue that females are confined to the
household due to maternal responsibilities
○
However, this does not explain that many activities
normally performed by women require considerable
strength
○
One theory suggests that sexual division of labour can be
explained on the basis of sexual dimorphism, in which
males are generally built larger than females
•
This is also a growing trend in many Western
industrialized countries, in which traditional male
and female jobs are now filled by both men and
women
○
Ex. Nursing was once strictly defined as a female
job, yet today many men are choosing nursing as a
career
○
Nowadays in Canada, there are few jobs that are
restricted solely to one gender, although there are
still sectors of the economy that are predominantly
male or female
○
Interestingly, despite many jobs being open for
women very few choose to participate in certain
traditionally male trades
○
The social climate around certain kinds of work
makes them less desirable for men or women even
when no other reasons prevent them from doing that
work
○
However, despite the pronounced gender-based division of
labour in many societies, there are many instances where
such activities greatly overlap
•
Raising children in arguable the most important job
in society, yet it is devalues in many societies and
buried in the shadow of politics, economics and
warfare
○
There are many theories which attempt to explain
these inequalities
○
Although theories on the division of labour may account
for why men and women tend to engage in certain
activities, they do not explain why traditional female roles
are considered to be less important than traditional male
roles
•
This photo depicts a common fertility fetish artifact
that was generally thought to be an exaggeration of
female features
○
Recently, female anthropologists noticed that they
were in fact anatomically correct figures of pregnant
women when viewed from the self perspective of a
pregnant woman
○
There is a good chance these were made my pregnant
women and not men
○
*see photo: Paleolithic Ceramic Venus "Fertility" Figurine
•
Gender and the Division of Labour
Yet there are many cultures where men control
economic and political power and women are
denigrated and devalues
○
There is nothing biological about the gender-based
allocation of economic, social and political rights
○
Although in some societies males are females are
considered to be of relatively equal status, no cultures have
been documented where women are elevated politically or
economically at the expense of men
•
In such situations, matrilocal residence patterns
are common, which keep the female family
members together
!
Thus, in favourable environments with little
competition for resources, sexual equality prevails
since there is less reliance on male warriors for
protection
○
In such societies, male domination and gender
inequalities are common
!
On the other hand, in unfavourable environments
where resources are scarce, patrilocal residence
pattern are beneficial since they keep male family
members united in times of ware
○
*see Unit 8 for definitions
○
Some anthropologists argue that male domination over
women is a response to stress with respect to the food
supply and warfare
•
The domestic sphere related to the world of the
household, reproduction and child-rearing, whereas
the public sphere includes citizenship, religion,
public culture and the state
○
Societies with rigid domestic-public distinctions,
such as Islamic societies that practice seclusion, or
Victorian Europe and the US, devalue the private
sphere and the women with whom they are
associated
○
On the other hand, societies with less of a domestic-
public dichotomy such as Ju/'hoansi and other
foragers, tend to have less gender stratification
○
Another theory attributes gender inequalities to the
domestic-public dichotomy
•
However, each situation is unique with its own
historical, cultural and environmental influences and
it is difficult to apply one theory to all societies
○
There are many other theories which try to explain this
pattern male-dominance in society
•
Despite many attempts to understand gender roles and
sexual inequality from a cross-cultural perspective, for
many years these topics were ignored by anthropologists
who themselves came from male-dominated societies
•
At first termed the anthropology of women, many
feminist anthropologists conducted studies on the
lives and experiences of women
○
By the 1980s the focus shifted to the study of gender
and a concern for both sexes and their various
relations
○
Nowadays there is a vast collection of research,
ranging from studies of lesbian expression to
violence against women
○
Anthropologists have also taken a more critical look
at how their discipline has interpreted gender roles in
the past, examining cases where the anthropologists'
own gender bias may have altered their interpretation
of many topics
○
In many cases the maleness or femaleness of the
researcher limits their access to another culture
○
Western male anthropologists for example, would
not easily gain access to the world of females living
in Muslim societies
○
Early ethnographies written by male anthropologists
often address the world of men in detail but leave out
much of what goes on among women
○
Feminist anthropology emerged in the 1970s in response to
this oversight
•
Gender Inequalities and Feminist Anthropology
Sex, Gender & Marriage
Saturday,*March*3,*2018 6:39*PM
Document Summary
Describe the cultural anthropological approach to human reproduction as a culturally shaped process that is more than just a biological fact. Discuss the universality of gender inequalities and the gendered division of labour. Compare reproductive regulation methods found in other societies. Distinguish the different types of exchanges that are made upon marriage, and compare the implications of these exchanges. Humans are not the only animals to have a social aspect surrounding their reproduction, but the extent to which humans have transformed an essentially biological process is quite remarkable. Reproduction among mammals itself is mating, which may involve a random choice of mates or may be monogamous. The institution of marriage among humans is a cultural universal to the extent we all understand relationships involving men and women getting together for mutual support, sex and reproduction. The forms marriage takes on the other hand, can be widely different among humans.
