01:377:303 Lecture Notes - Lecture 3: Ulnar Nerve, Humerus, Ulna

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7 Apr 2016

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Cardinal planes of moion: 3 basic or tradiional. 1. in relaion to the body, not in relaion to the earth: anteroposterior or sagital plane, lateral or frontal plane, transverse or horizontal plane, sagital plane (anteroposterior) It bisects body into 2 equal symmetrical halves or a right & let half: divides body into equal, bilateral segments. 2: flexion and extension movements happen here, ex. Spinal rotaion to let or right forearm pronaion and supinaion. Planes of movement: *****but realize, most of our movement (especially when we are acive) happens in the, *diagonal/oblique plane of movement. Diagonal planes of moion: high diagonal, upper limbs at shoulder joints, overhand skills, ex. Baseball pitch: low diagonal, upper limbs at shoulder joints, underhand skills, ex. Discus thrower: low diagonal, lower limbs at the hip joints, ex. 2. runs at a right angle to the diagonal plane. Physiological movements vs. accessory moions: both occur simultaneously and work together, physiological movement results from acive voluntary muscle contracion.

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As we have learned, many economic topics have been obsolete for decades. Yet, some topics and concepts continue to stand the test of time and are therefore useful today. Price point elasticity is a hallmark subtopic of microeconomics that is also considered a serious sub-topical contender for the modern body of knowledge surrounding our study of a sustainable economy. The reason for the legitimacy is that it based upon the mathematical ratio of price and quantity demanded along the demand curve. This basic calculation is in actuality a simple ratio that is based upon the linear slope relationship of price and quantity demanded for a specific product or service. Results render quantitative decision support for price adjustments and their consequence. For every one percent increase in price, the price point elasticity tells you how much less quantity will be demanded as a percent. Conversely, for every one percentage decrease in price, price point elasticity tells you how much more quantity will be demanded, as a percent.

Results are percentage so further calculation is needed to determine if the price adjustment is justified by a loss or gain relative to leaving the price the same. For example, the price demand schedule below says that for every one percent change we will see a two percent negative change in quantity demanded. So if we change the price five percent, we will see a negative impact of ten percent less product sold. If our product sells for $40 and we increase it to $42 we will see a drop of 200 sold. If the scale of our schedule is in millions sold, we will see a decrease of 200 million sold. Do you think it is worth the trouble of changing the price? Why?
We may gain $4000 by increasing price but we will also may lose 200 sales and at the new price of 42 dollars so our estimated loss of $8400 will be far greater than the gain. Of course, these are estimates and real world pricing may be in pennies instead of dollars, especially in this price range and other factors must be considered such as substitutes, complements, changing trends, taste, obsolesce, incomes, and a series of demographic fluctuations that are representative of the population of customers. Nonetheless, isolating price and quantity is the first exercise when considering the demand for a product or service.

Price	Demand
50	1000
45	1500
40	2000
35	2500
30	3000
25	3500

Table 3 Price/demand schedule for some product or service

Kindly write a one page summary of the data below.

A crucial assumption underlying most models of sexual selection is that sexual advertisements honestly reflect the phenotypic and/or genetic quality of their bearers (1). Here we show that experimental activation of the immune system is rapidly mirrored in the expression of a carotenoid-based secondary sexual trait in male blackbirds (Turdus merula). This result shows that sexual advertisement honestly signals male health and can be reliably used by conspecifics as a cue of individual quality during intra- and/or intersexual interactions. Male blackbirds exhibit a black plumage with a yellow to orange bill, whereas females are brownish with a brown bill. Recent studies have suggested that bill color is a sexually selected trait in blackbirds (2, 3). For example, resident male blackbirds are more aggressive to mounts with orange bills than to mounts with yellow bills (2). Bill pigmentation might therefore provide a signal used during contests between males (2). In addition, male blackbirds with orange bills are mated with females in better body condition and fledge more offspring than males with yellow bills (3). Overall, these results suggest a role for bill color in sexual selection, possibly as an indicator of male phenotypic quality. Carotenoids are common components of colored signals used in animal communication (4). They are also important in the up-regulation of various aspects of the immune functioning (5) and cellular protection against free radicals (6). This suggests that a trade-off may exist between allocation of carotenoids to sexual signaling versus immune defenses (4). Using an autosampler high-performance liquid chromatographer, we determined the presence of carotenoids deposited in the bill of male blackbirds [see note (S1)] (7). The analysis of the absorption spectrum revealed the presence of - and -carotene, -cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, and lutein (Fig. 1A). To investigate whether bill color reflects immune status, we immunized captive male blackbirds with a suspension of sheep red blood cells (SRBC) in both spring 1999 (n 19) and spring 2002 (n 13). A control group (n 15) was injected with a phosphate-buffered saline solution (PBS) for control in 2002. Only the 2002 birds were used as a direct test of the hypothesis that immune activation reduces the expression of the secondary sexual trait, by comparing changes in bill color for SRBC and PBS males. Birds immunized with SRBC in both years (n 32) were used to assess the effect of anti-SRBC immune response on bill color [see note (S2)] (7). The humoral immune response against SRBC was determined 7 days after the challenge with a haemagglutination technique. Birds immunized with SRBC displayed a significant decrease in bill color [repeated measurements analysis of variance, F(1,26) 14.34, P 0.0008; Fig. 1, B, C, and D], which was independent of initial bill color and was not associated with a decrease in body mass (P 0.1). In addition, among immunized males, the likelihood of becoming duller was significantly correlated with the intensity of the anti-SRBC response as determined from the haemagglutination test (logistic regression, Wald 2 5.12, P 0.023, n 32), whereas neither year nor initial bill color entered the logistic regression model (P 0.1). Overall, these results demonstrate the existence of a trade-off between sexual advertisement and immune activation in male blackbirds. This finding has important consequences for both the evolution of secondary sexual traits and the cost of immune function. Assessment of opponent quality during male-male competition or mate quality during female choice based on a dynamic trait, such as bill color, might have evolved if it honestly reflects health status of the individual (1). The activation of the immune system by an infectious process is rapidly mirrored in the color of the bill. Contrary to feather ornaments that are produced during the annual molt, dynamic traits might therefore convey a continual update on male health. Carotenoids, such as astaxanthin, lutein, and -carotene, used for sexual signaling have been shown to enhance in vitro and in vivo antibody production to SRBC (8) and to provide protection against free radicals (6). Our results suggest that the activation of the immune system withdraws carotenoids to enhance immune functioning as well as to deal with free radicals produced during the immune response, at the expense of sexual signaling.

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Case Study Section 4 â Nitrogen Metabolism Based on âA Sickeningly Sweet Baby Boy: A Case Study on Autosomal Recessive Inheritanceâ by Jacqueline Washington and Anne Zayaitz (National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science) The Patient: Mathew Miller is a 7-day-old infant that is rushed to the emergency room by his parents Emma and Jacob Miller, Mennonites from Lancaster County, PA. Emmaâs pregnancy and delivery with Mathew was normal but he started having trouble nursing and now has completely stopped feeding. By the time they reach the emergency room Mathewâs limbs were rigid and he had had a seizure. The initial examination showed no infection and his x-rays were normal. The family history collected by the Doctor revealed that Emma and Jacob had had a previous son, Samuel that died at 9 days-of-age. There also is a history of unexplained childhood mortality on both sides of the family; Emmaâs mother had two sisters who died in the first year of their lives and Jacobâs father had a sister who died at 7 months of age. Emma also points out to the Doctor that Mathewâs diaper has a funny smell to it. Blood and urine samples were taken for testing and skin biopsies from Mathew, Emma, and Jacob were taken and tested for enzyme activity. The tests results showed that:

â¢ Mathewâs urine had elevated levels of the branched chain amino acids and their Î±-keto acid derivatives (which caused the sweet smell in his diapers)

â¢ Both Emma and Jacobâs skin biopsies had nearly normal levels of branched chain amino acid metabolism/enzyme activity

â¢ Mathewâs enzyme activity was less than 2% of normal

Question 1: What is the most likely diagnosis for Mathew?

A. Argininemia

B. Diabetes mellitus '

C. Maple syrup urine disease

D. Phenylketonuria

Question2: What enzyme did the skin biopsy test measure?

A. Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I

B. Alanine aminotransferase

C. Phenylalanine hydroxylase

D. Branched-chain Î±-keto acid dehydrogenase complex

Question 3: This enzyme functions VERY similarly to two other enzymes that we have discussed, what are they?

A. Phosphofructokinase-1 and fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase (FBPAse-1)

B. Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and Î±-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex

C. Urease and arginase

D. Isocitrate dehydrogenase and malate dehydrogenase

Question 4: How did Mathew (and presumably Samuel) inherit the disease if both Emma and Jacob have normal enzyme activity levels?

A. Emma and Jacob must both be carriers for the disease but their one normal gene is enough to maintain enzyme activity levels.

B. The disease can happen spontaneously, there is no genetic link.

C. Jacob is not really the father of the boys.

D. The disease can skip generations.

Question 5: What would be the best diet for Mathew to follow to control his disease?

A. Atkinâs diet (low carbohydrates, high fat, and high protein)

B. Low protein

C. Low fat

D. No special diet will control the disease

Over the next 4 years Mathewâs metabolic disease is controlled by his special diet but he still suffers approximately 3 metabolic crises a year. These occur when amino acids accumulate in his blood leading to the swelling of his brain. Even something as simple as a cold or the flu can affect his amino acid levels and send his metabolism into crisis. Jacob and Emma decide that âWe cannot continue to live in constant fear that a minor infection or a simple cold or ear infection could kill our son. Even though we are doing everything we are supposed to, he is still getting sick and we are afraid we may lose Mathew.â They learn that some children with Mathewâs disease have undergone liver transplants and are effectively cured.

Question 6: How/why would a liver transplant effectively cure Mathewâs condition?

A. A new liver would be able to spread itâs genes throughout the body and correct the genetic disorder.

B. A new liver would more effectively respond to metabolic hormonal control.

C. A new liver would express the functional enzyme needed to metabolize the amino acids causing Mathewâs condition.

D. A new liver would produce more hemoglobin to transport oxygen more effectively.

The family is directed to Dr. Morton of Childrenâs Hospital of Pittsburgh, where transplant experts agree to list Mathew for a liver transplant. Jacob and Emma learn that children who receive a liver transplant have to take strong immunosuppressive drugs for the rest of their lives. It was also clear that there was a 40% possibility that Mathew could reject the liver and need a second transplant (which also might be rejected) or he could die from surgical complications.

Question 7: Assuming the liver transplant was successful and Mathew did not reject the new liver, what type of diet would Mathew be able to/need to eat?

A. He would still need to eat his special diet but he would be at less risk of a metabolic crisis

B. He could eat a normal diet

C. He would need to change to a high protein diet like Atkinâs

D. He would be on an all liquid diet

Question 8: Emma and Jacob decide they want to try to have another child. What would be the chance that this child would also have the disorder that Mathew and Samuel have/had?

A. 0 %

B. 25%

C. 50%

D. 75%

E. 100%

Question 9: If Mathew grew up, got married, and decided to have children, what would be the chance that his children would have the disorder? A. 0%, the liver transplant would have cured him

B. 25%

C. 50%

D. 100%

E. It would depend on his wife, if she was normal than there would be a 0% chance of his children having the disorder but 100% would be carriers, if she was a carrier than there would be a 50% chance of his children having the disorder and a 50% chance that they would be a carrier.

Question 10: The disorder is found in 1 in 200,000 infants throughout the US but 1 in 200 in the Amish and Mennonites of Lancaster County, PA. Why is there such a difference in the prevalence of the disease?

A. There are environmental factors associated with being Amish or Mennonites that increase the prevalence.

B. There is a large amount of genetic similarity within these populations because they tend to marry within the population so recessive disorders such as this are more likely.

C. The gene mutation is preferentially carried in Caucasians so when you average the prevalence across all races in the US the prevalence drops.

D. It is unknown why the prevalence is so much greater in Amish and Mennonites.

01:377:303 Lecture Notes - Lecture 3: Ulnar Nerve, Humerus, Ulna

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