PSYC100 Study Guide - Final Guide: Behaviorism, Classical Conditioning, Action Potential
Exam
Answer using a general purpose answer sheet
•
Taken from across the topics
Introduction and History of Psychology
•
Research in Psychology
•
Biological bases of behaviour
•
Sensation
•
Perception
•
Learning
•
Memory
•
Language and thinking
•
Levels of consciousness
•
•
Questions can relate to lectures or the Bernstein textbook (chapters
1-9)
•
Look up the exam timetable for date, time and location
•
Check again one or two days before the exam to confirm details
•
It is your responsibility to be in the right place at the right time
•
Study Tips
Ensure that you read all required reading
•
Write notes in your own words
Semantic elaboration
•
•
Think of personal or real world examples
Self-referent encoding
•
•
Use mnmonics
Rickard of York Gave Battle in Vein
•
•
Distributed practise rather than massed practice
Avoid revising for exam in just one sitting
•
Distribute your revision over a number of days
•
•
Get someone to test your knowledge
•
Introduction and History of Psychology
Week 1-2
History of Psychology
Many different branches of psychology throughout its short history:
Structuralism
Wundt founded psychology ▪
Interested in the basic elements of consciousness ▪
Introspection ▪
•
Functionalism
William James argued we should look at the function of
consciousness rather than the snapshot of structuralism
What adaptive value does consciousness have?•
▪
Influenced by Darwin's natural selection
Survival or reproductive advantage •
▪
•
Behaviourism (1913-present)
John Watson argued the object of study should be
behaviour as it is objective
Allowed for animal research •
▪
B.F Skinner adopted behaviourism
Accepted the mental processes existed but accepted
that it cannot be studied scientifically
•
▪
•
Psychanalytic (1900-present)
Freud argued the unconscious exerts influence on our
behaviour
▪
Unconscious thoughts, memories and desires ▪
•
Humanistic (1950s – present)
Emphasises people's unique qualities and potential for
personal growth
▪
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are prominent figures ▪
•
Cognitive (1950s – present)
Return to looking at conscious processes to understand
behaviour
▪
•
Biological/neuroscience (1950s-present)
Physiological bases ▪
How brain structures link to behaviour ▪
•
Evolutionary (1980-present)
Behaviour has passed through generations as a product of
natural selection
Reproductive success •
Survival •
▪
•
•
Applied Psychology
In the more recent history of psychology has become a profession in it
own right
Use the knowledge from research in an applied context•
Clinical psychology
Concerned with diagnosis and treatment of psychogical
disorders
▪
First clinic in 1896 with number increasing due to WWII and
the need for screening of military recruits
▪
•
Counseling psychology
Mental health disorders, meditation and trauma ▪
•
Educational and school psychology
Supprt children, parents and teachers
School transition •
Peer pressure •
Identity issues •
▪
•
Industrial and organisational psychology
Support companies with
Recruitment and selection •
Analysis of training and development needs •
▪
•
•
Research in psychology
Week 3
Research in psychology
Experimental research
Establish cause and effect •
How does it work?
Independent variable: Variable that the experimenter
manipulates
Many conditions of this variable: Experimental and
control
•
▪
Dependent variable: The variable that is measured àthe
response
▪
•
When conducting experiments, a number of factors are
considered:
Typically have two groups of participants
Control: Do not receive treatment •
Experimental: Receive treatment •
▪
Assignment to groups can be random or non-random ▪
Control for extraneous variables
Other variables that may offer an explanation •
▪
•
Within-subjects (everyone goes through all conditions) or
between-subjects (only a selection of people go through different
conditions)
Same person answers three different quizzes (within) ▪
Three people answer one quiz each (between) ▪
•
Case study: In-depth investigation of one person or a small group
Rare disorders or experiences▪
•
Naturalistic: Observation in a naturalistic setting
Beeping horns at a stop-light ▪
•
Survey: Questionnaires or interviews
How much tv do you watch? ▪
•
Correlational: Relationship between two variables
More ice-cream is eaten in hot weather ▪
•
Once data is collected, we use analysis to tell us what the data
shows
•
Descriptive vs Inferential statistics •
Descriptive statistics: Describe the data set
Mean and Standard Deviation: central tendency and
variability of the data
▪
•
Correlation: relationship between two variables
Positive or negative •
Strength of relationship (-1 to +1)
•
•
Inferential statistics: Allow for us to draw conclusions
Based on statistical significance: Are the results due to
chance?
•
•
•
Biological Bases of Behaviour
Week 4 and 5
Neurons
Neurons transmit information around the body
Sensory neurons (afferent): Information from sensory cells •
Interneurons: Connect neurons together •
Motorneurons (efferent): Commands to muscles
•
•
Neuron is made up of many parts
Dendrites: Receive information•
Soma: Contains the nucleus•
Axon: Transmits signals away from soma to other neurons•
Synaptic vesicles: Contain neurotransmitters•
Terminal buttons: Secrete neruotransmitters•
Synapse: Information transmitted between neurons •
•
Action Potential
Neural impulse is an electrochemical reactions
Resting potential is when the inside of the neuron is negative •
Action potential is when a neural impulse travels along the axon
Neuron is less negative or positive •
Electrical charge travels along axon •
When the action potential reaches the terminal
buttons, the synaptic vesicles fuse with membrane
and release neurotransmitter into the synapse
•
Neurotransmitters bind with receptor site on
postsynaptic neuron
•
•
Action potential are always the same size (all-or-none) regardless
of the stimuli
Pin prick versus car running over your foot •
•
•
Biological Bases of Behaviour
Two sorts of neurotransmitters
Agonists: Chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter
Produces PSP – postive postsymaptic potential •
Nicotine •
•
Antagonist: Opposes the action of a neurotransmitter
Block the neurotransmitter by occupying its space •
•
•
Neurotransmitters help to regulate our behaviour
Atypical levels can lead to psychological disorders
Depression: Low norepinephrine and serotonin •
OCD: Atypical serotonin levels •
Schizophrenia: Atypical dopamine levels
•
•
•
Endocrine system
Relays messages via hormones into the blood stream
Pituitary gland: Master gland •
Thyroid gland: Growth and •
metabolism hormones •
Adrenal gland: Adrenaline during emergencies •
Gonads: Testosterone and estrogen •
•
•
Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord•
•
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) •
• Neurons which pass messages to and from CNS
Somatic nervous system •
Autonomic nervous system •
Cerebral Laterality
Right hemisphere controls left side of the body (and vice versa) •
For vision, the story is more complex....•
Each information received from each eye goes to both sides of the
brain
•
Genetics
Nature or nurture?
Can look at identical twins and families to assess the contribution of
nature (genetics) and nurture (environment)
If it’s all about genetics, identical twins should be the same •
If the environment contributes, identical twins should be
different
•
•
•
Genetics can influence our physical and behavioural characteristics
Genes work in pairs: one from mother, one from father
Homozygous: Same genes •
Heterozygous: Different genes
One is dominant •
One is recessive •
•
•
•
Genotype: Person’s genetic makeup
Stays this way for life•
•
Phenotype: Observable characteristics
May change over time •
May be altered by environmental factors •
•
Sensation and Perception
Week 6 and 7
Sensation: Stimulation of sense organs •
Perception: Organisation and interpretation of input •
When sensing something we have an
Absolute threshold: Minimum level that can be detected •
Just noticeable difference: Smallest difference detectable •
•
Signal detection theory
First process: Sensory ability specific to individual •
Second process: Response bias
Expectations: Do you expect their to be a sound? •
Motivations: Are you more motivated because of your
previous experience?
•
•
•
Stimuli can occur below the absolute threshold
Subliminal perception: Eat popcorn•
However, the effects are only weak •
•
Sensory adaptation
We respond less to something that is constant(e.g., chatter in the
background or trains going past)
•
This is not true for vision •
•
Vision
Light waves are the stimulus
Amplitude varies brightness •
Wavelength varies colour •
•
Eye creates an image of the world on the retina
Enters cornea àlens forms upside down image àbrain interprets
the image
•
Lens
Accommodation: Altering the lens to adjust visual focus
Close: Fatter lens •
Distance: Flatter lens •
•
•
•
Iris
Constricted: Less light, sharper image •
Dilated: More light, less sharp •
•
Visual Perception
Perceiving forms, patterns and objects
Gestalt principles explain how we can make sense of what we see
Proximity: Near each other are seen as together •
Closure: Sense of completeness •
Similarity: Group things that are similar •
Simplicity: Create good figure •
Continuity: Follow the direction you are led •
•
•
Depth Perception
Indicates how near or far an object is •
Binocular cues
Based on the differences between the input of both eyes •
Retinal disparity: Objects within 7.5 metres project slightly
different locations
•
•
Monocular cues •
Based on information from one eye
Linear perspective: Lines converge in distance 1.
Texture gradients: Further away an object, the less detail 2.
Interposition: A closer object blocks an object in the distance 3.
Relative size: Close objects are larger 4.
Height in plane: Distant objects are higher 5.
Light and shadow 6.
•
Perceptual constancies: When someone is walking towards us, we interpret
it as such rather than someone who is getting taller!
•
Hearing
Sound waves are the stimuli
Frequency relates to pitch •
Amplitude relates to volume •
Outer ear: Amplifies sound waves and allows us to determine location
in space
•
Middle ear: Soundwaves cause eardrum to vibrate which causes small
bones to vibrate again oval window
•
Inner ear: Oval window causes waves in cochlea fluid which disturb the
hair cells on the basilar membrane. This triggers an action potential so
passes information to brain
•
•
Sensory information travels to auditory cortex in temporal lobes via... •
Medulla(where cross-over occurs), and... •
midbrain(inferior colliculus) then thalamus (medial geniculate nucleus) •
Taste
Stimulus is a chemical substance that is soluble
Received by taste buds •
Absorb the dissolved chemicals which triggers neural impulses •
•
Four primary tastes
Sweet, sour, bitter and salty (also umami = savoury) •
Taste preference may be inborn: newborns react positively to
sweet tastes and negatively to sour
•
However, taste preferences are largely learned
Social processes•
•
•
People vary in relation to the sensitivity to tastes
Non-tasters have 1⁄4 as many taste buds as supertasters •
Supertasters are more sensitive to sweet and bitter substances
Tend to eat fewer high-fat foods, react negatively to
alcohol, but also respond negatively to vegetables
•
•
•
Skin Senses
Touch has three properties
Pressure
Sensitivity varies (hands more sensitive than back) •
•
Temperature
Sense temperature difference between skin and object •
•
Pain
No specific physical stimulus (i.e., no “pain waves”) •
Many stimuli trigger pain (e.g., sound, light, pressure,
temperature)
•
Two pathways for pain to reach the brain
Fast pathway: Localised pain; relays quickly to cortex
Sharp pain when first cut yourself •
•
Slow pathway: Two seconds slower for longer-lasting; less
localised pain
•
•
•
•
Learning
Week 8
Any relatively permanent change in our behaviour as a result of experinence
Classical conditioning •
Operant conditioning •
Observational learning•
•
Classical Conditioning
Pavolv •
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS); conditioned stimulus (CS); conditioned
response (CR)
Food (UCS) causes a dog to salivate (UR response). A bell (neural
stimulus) is then repeatedly rang when food (UCS) is present. Thus,
eventually the bell becomes a CS as triggers the CR of salivating
•
•
Types of Classical Conditioning
Three types of classical conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together
Bell rings at the same time as the food is presented•
•
•
Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS,•
end together
Bell begins just before the food is presented•
Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is presented
Bell begins and ends ringing before food is presented•
•
Processes in Classical Conditioning
Extinction: “Gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned
response tendency”
Conditioned fear of spiders may reduce if you start to work in an
environment where you play with spiders everyday
•
•
Spontaneous recovery: “Reappearance of an extinguished response after a
period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus”
•
Stimulus generalization: “When an organism has learned a response to a
specific stimulus that responds in the same way to new stimuli that are
similar to the original stimulus”
Little Albert generalized fear from rats to other fluffy white things•
•
Processes in classical conditioning
Stimulus discrimination: “When an organism that has learned a
response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to
new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus” (p. 238)
•
Higher-order conditioning: “In which a conditioned stimulus functions
as if it were an unconditioned stimulus” (p. 239)
Condition a dog to salivate when they hear a sound •
When sound causes salivation, you then pair the sound with a •
(e.g.) red light
Present red light by itself which leads to dog salivating as the light
has been paired with the sound!
•
•
•
Operant Conditioning
Thorndike(1913)& B.F. Skinner(1953)
Operant chamber (Skinner box) is an enclosure in which an animal can
make a response where the consequences of the response are
controlled
•
•
Learning is a result of the consequences
Tell jokes àpeople laugh àincrease joke telling •
•
Basic processes in operant conditioning include:
Acquisition: Initial learning of response •
Shaping: Reinforcing closer approximations of the desired response •
Extinction •
•
Reinforcement
Types of reinforcement
Positive: “When a response is strengthened because it is followed by
the presentation of a rewarding stimulus”
Rat receiving food because it pressed a button •
•
Negative: “When a response is strengthened because it is followed by
the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus”
Electric shock turned off because rat pressed a button •
•
•
Observational Learning
Bandura(1977) •
“Occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the
observation of others, who are called models”
•
Not entirely separate from operant and classical conditioning as we
can learn vicariously from others classical and operant conditioning
If we observe our friend getting a reward because she did
something nice for her mum (operant conditioning with positive
reinforcement), we are more likely to do something nice for our
mum
•
•
Memory
Week 9
When we are presented with stimulus it follows the procedure
Encoding àstorage àretrieval •
•
Encoding
Need to pay attention
Cocktail party phenomena: Early or late selection? •
Divided attention: Switch attention between two tasks •
Levels of processing: Structural, phonemic and semantic •
•
Many strategies to improving memory
Spacing: Massed versus spaced rehearsal •
Enriching encoding:
Elaboration: Linking information together •
Visual imagery: Picturing what you are remembering •
Self-reference encoding: Personally relevant •
•
Mnemonic devices •
•
•
Long-term memory
Longer it spends in STM, the more likely it is to enter LTM •
Retrieval of information from LTM to STM •
•
Capacity is limitless •
Many varieties of LTM •
• Declarative: Facts and events
Semantic: General world knowledge •
Episodic: Particular events (thoughts, feelings and experiences)
Autobiographical: Specific personal events but can become
semantic with repetition
•
•
Procedural: Skills and habits
“Never forget how to ride a bike” •
Reading •
First learning to drive requires declarative but then becomes
procedural
•
Retain this knowledge over long periods of time •
•
Memory can be supported using
Clustering: Grouping items of same topic •
Schema: Abstract knowledge of an object or event •
Semantic networks: Explains how one word can trigger a related
concept
•
•
Retrieval
Cues can support retrieval •
Context: Remember where you were at the time or retrace your steps •
•
Forgetting
We do not remember everything
Decay theory: Memory trace fades if not used •
Interference theory: Two similar memories can interact
Proactive: Stored memories interfere with new•
Retroactive: New memories interfere with old •
•
•
Motivated forgetting •
•
Language and thinking
Week 10
Language is a system of symbols that represent concepts
Syntax: Rules for combining symbols •
Infinite messages can be developed •
•
Structure
Phonemes: smallest speech units in a language that can be •
distinguished perceptually: 40 in English
Morphemes: smallest units of meaning in a language: un-friend-ly has
three
•
Semantics: understanding the meaning of words and word
combinations
•
Syntax: system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into
sentences: sentence must have a noun phrase and a verb phrase
•
Milestones in language
Three-months-old to before 12-months: Can distinguish
phonemes from different languages
•
0-6 months: Crying and cooing •
8 months: Recognise/comprehend some words •
10 months: Utters first words •
12 months: One-word sentence •
16 months: Vocabulary spurt •
•
Receptive vocabulary is greater than productive
Early words relate to objects then actions •
•
Fast mapping underlies their vocabulary spurt
“Process by which children map a word onto an underlying
concept after only one exposure” (p. 317)
For example, train after seeing a train or sausage after
seeing a sausage
•
•
However, children can make errors such as overextension (e.g.,
uses word ball for all round objects)
•
•
Combining words
Children typically learn to combine words into sentences at the
end of their second year
Starts as telegraphic speech: Missing less critical words
“Give doll” instead of “please give me the doll” •
•
•
By end of third year, children can express complex ideas, but
often use incorrectly generalise gramatical rules
“The girl goed home” •
•
•
Refining language
Massive developments in language occur between four and five
years
•
Continue to refine in early school years •
During this time metalinguistic awareness develops
“ability to reflect on the use of language” (p. 318) •
Understand that sentences can have literal and applied
meaning
“We are packing in the room like sardines” •
•
•
•
Theories of language acquisition
Behaviourist: Learn through imitation, reinforcement and
conditioning
Vocalisations that are reinforced will be strengthened •
Simply imitate the words and sentences of others •
•
Nativist: Chomsky argued that due to the great number of
possible
•
sentences it is impossible to learn everything via imitation
Inborn propensity for language •
Language acquisition device which facilitates language •
Interactionist: Biology and experience both contribute to
language learning
•
•
There are many approaches that people can take to problem solving
Using algorithms: methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying
all possible alternatives in searching for a solution
•
Forming subgoals: form goals that work towards your overall goal •
Working backwards: if there is a clear end point, it can be useful
to work backwards from this point
•
Searching for analogies: use your previous experience and
solutions to solve another one
•
•
•
Difficulties problem solving can occur because
Irrelevant information: incorrectly assume that all information is
needed to solve the problem
•
Functional fixedness: perceive an item only in terms of its most
common use
This occurs in the string problem•
•
Mental set: use strategies that worked in the past
People may stick to this even though it does not work on
the current problem
•
•
Unnecessary constraints: people often place constraints on their
problem solving that do not exist
•
•
Levels of Consciousness
Week 11
Awareness of internal and external stimuli •
EEG can measure our levels of consciousness
Electrical activity using electrodes on scalp
Beta waves: Engaged in activity •
Alpha waves: Relaxed •
Delta waves: Deep, dreamless sleep •
•
Circadian rhythms changes over the course of 24-hours
Sleep-wake cycle •
Peak in alertness at different times of day•
•
Amount of sleep needed differs between people
6.5-8.5 hours•
•
Sleep may conserve energy, restore our bodies or consolidate learning
Sleep is important •
•
Sleep passes through a series of stages
Stage 1 (nREM): Brief with theta waves •
Stage 2 (nREM): Larger waves with sleep spindles •
Stage 3 (delta sleep; nREM) •
Stage 4 (delta sleep, nREM) •
Stage 3 àstage 2 àREM
Dream during REM stage •
•
Sleep deprivation
Deprived of REM sleep: Little impact on functioning but
enter REM sleep quicker and more often
•
Greater impacts on children
May be due to amount of learning at this age •
•
•
Sleep problems
Insomnia: Most common; difficulty getting to sleep,
difficulty staying asleep or waking up early
•
Sleep apnoea: Reflexive gasping for air •
Nightmares: Awakening from REM sleep due to vivid •
dreams
Night terrors: Awaken from Stage 4 with autonomic arousal •
Sleepwalking: First 3-hours of sleep •
•
•
Dreams
Psychodynamic perspective (Freud)
Manifest content (story line) and latent content (hidden •
•
underlying meaning)
•
Cognitive perspective
Dreams express your current concerns in a different ‘language’
Concern about exam may exhibit itself as being chased in a
dream
•
•
•
Biological perspective
Random firings which your brain attaches a story to •
•
Hypnosis
Heightened level of suggestibility •
•
Can lead to:
Analgesia: Sense of no pain •
Sensory distortions: Visual and auditory hallucinations •
Disinhibition: Can reduce inhibitions to act in socially
unacceptable ways
•
Posthypnotic suggestions: Suggestions may later affect behaviour
•
•
Meditation
Train heightened awareness and obtain voluntary control of
mental processes
Focused attention •
Open monitoring •
•
Demonstrate more alphawaves (relaxedstate)•
Can lead to stress reduction and improved mental health •
•
•
Week 12 –Revision
Friday, 26 May 2017
10:00 AM
Exam
Answer using a general purpose answer sheet •
Taken from across the topics
Introduction and History of Psychology •
Research in Psychology •
Biological bases of behaviour •
Sensation •
Perception •
Learning •
Memory •
Language and thinking •
Levels of consciousness •
•
Questions can relate to lectures or the Bernstein textbook (chapters
1-9)
•
Look up the exam timetable for date, time and location •
Check again one or two days before the exam to confirm details •
It is your responsibility to be in the right place at the right time •
Study Tips
Ensure that you read all required reading •
Write notes in your own words
Semantic elaboration •
•
Think of personal or real world examples
Self-referent encoding •
•
Use mnmonics
Rickard of York Gave Battle in Vein •
•
Distributed practise rather than massed practice
Avoid revising for exam in just one sitting •
Distribute your revision over a number of days •
•
Get someone to test your knowledge•
Introduction and History of Psychology
Week 1-2
History of Psychology
Many different branches of psychology throughout its short history:
Structuralism
Wundt founded psychology
▪
Interested in the basic elements of consciousness
▪
Introspection
▪
•
Functionalism
William James argued we should look at the function of
consciousness rather than the snapshot of structuralism
What adaptive value does consciousness have?
•
▪
Influenced by Darwin's natural selection
Survival or reproductive advantage
•
▪
•
Behaviourism (1913-present)
John Watson argued the object of study should be
behaviour as it is objective
Allowed for animal research
•
▪
B.F Skinner adopted behaviourism
Accepted the mental processes existed but accepted
that it cannot be studied scientifically
•
▪
•
Psychanalytic (1900-present)
Freud argued the unconscious exerts influence on our
behaviour
▪
Unconscious thoughts, memories and desires
▪
•
Humanistic (1950s – present)
Emphasises people's unique qualities and potential for
personal growth
▪
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are prominent figures
▪
•
Cognitive (1950s – present)
Return to looking at conscious processes to understand
behaviour
▪
•
Biological/neuroscience (1950s-present)
Physiological bases
▪
How brain structures link to behaviour
▪
•
Evolutionary (1980-present)
Behaviour has passed through generations as a product of
natural selection
Reproductive success
•
Survival •
▪
•
•
Applied Psychology
In the more recent history of psychology has become a profession in it
own right
Use the knowledge from research in an applied context•
Clinical psychology
Concerned with diagnosis and treatment of psychogical
disorders
▪
First clinic in 1896 with number increasing due to WWII and
the need for screening of military recruits
▪
•
Counseling psychology
Mental health disorders, meditation and trauma ▪
•
Educational and school psychology
Supprt children, parents and teachers
School transition •
Peer pressure •
Identity issues •
▪
•
Industrial and organisational psychology
Support companies with
Recruitment and selection •
Analysis of training and development needs •
▪
•
•
Research in psychology
Week 3
Research in psychology
Experimental research
Establish cause and effect •
How does it work?
Independent variable: Variable that the experimenter
manipulates
Many conditions of this variable: Experimental and
control
•
▪
Dependent variable: The variable that is measured àthe
response
▪
•
When conducting experiments, a number of factors are
considered:
Typically have two groups of participants
Control: Do not receive treatment •
Experimental: Receive treatment •
▪
Assignment to groups can be random or non-random ▪
Control for extraneous variables
Other variables that may offer an explanation •
▪
•
Within-subjects (everyone goes through all conditions) or
between-subjects (only a selection of people go through different
conditions)
Same person answers three different quizzes (within) ▪
Three people answer one quiz each (between) ▪
•
Case study: In-depth investigation of one person or a small group
Rare disorders or experiences▪
•
Naturalistic: Observation in a naturalistic setting
Beeping horns at a stop-light ▪
•
Survey: Questionnaires or interviews
How much tv do you watch? ▪
•
Correlational: Relationship between two variables
More ice-cream is eaten in hot weather ▪
•
Once data is collected, we use analysis to tell us what the data
shows
•
Descriptive vs Inferential statistics •
Descriptive statistics: Describe the data set
Mean and Standard Deviation: central tendency and
variability of the data
▪
•
Correlation: relationship between two variables
Positive or negative •
Strength of relationship (-1 to +1)
•
•
Inferential statistics: Allow for us to draw conclusions
Based on statistical significance: Are the results due to
chance?
•
•
•
Biological Bases of Behaviour
Week 4 and 5
Neurons
Neurons transmit information around the body
Sensory neurons (afferent): Information from sensory cells •
Interneurons: Connect neurons together •
Motorneurons (efferent): Commands to muscles
•
•
Neuron is made up of many parts
Dendrites: Receive information•
Soma: Contains the nucleus•
Axon: Transmits signals away from soma to other neurons•
Synaptic vesicles: Contain neurotransmitters•
Terminal buttons: Secrete neruotransmitters•
Synapse: Information transmitted between neurons •
•
Action Potential
Neural impulse is an electrochemical reactions
Resting potential is when the inside of the neuron is negative •
Action potential is when a neural impulse travels along the axon
Neuron is less negative or positive •
Electrical charge travels along axon •
When the action potential reaches the terminal
buttons, the synaptic vesicles fuse with membrane
and release neurotransmitter into the synapse
•
Neurotransmitters bind with receptor site on
postsynaptic neuron
•
•
Action potential are always the same size (all-or-none) regardless
of the stimuli
Pin prick versus car running over your foot •
•
•
Biological Bases of Behaviour
Two sorts of neurotransmitters
Agonists: Chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter
Produces PSP – postive postsymaptic potential •
Nicotine •
•
Antagonist: Opposes the action of a neurotransmitter
Block the neurotransmitter by occupying its space •
•
•
Neurotransmitters help to regulate our behaviour
Atypical levels can lead to psychological disorders
Depression: Low norepinephrine and serotonin •
OCD: Atypical serotonin levels •
Schizophrenia: Atypical dopamine levels
•
•
•
Endocrine system
Relays messages via hormones into the blood stream
Pituitary gland: Master gland •
Thyroid gland: Growth and •
metabolism hormones •
Adrenal gland: Adrenaline during emergencies •
Gonads: Testosterone and estrogen •
•
•
Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord•
•
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) •
• Neurons which pass messages to and from CNS
Somatic nervous system •
Autonomic nervous system •
Cerebral Laterality
Right hemisphere controls left side of the body (and vice versa) •
For vision, the story is more complex....•
Each information received from each eye goes to both sides of the
brain
•
Genetics
Nature or nurture?
Can look at identical twins and families to assess the contribution of
nature (genetics) and nurture (environment)
If it’s all about genetics, identical twins should be the same •
If the environment contributes, identical twins should be
different
•
•
•
Genetics can influence our physical and behavioural characteristics
Genes work in pairs: one from mother, one from father
Homozygous: Same genes •
Heterozygous: Different genes
One is dominant •
One is recessive •
•
•
•
Genotype: Person’s genetic makeup
Stays this way for life•
•
Phenotype: Observable characteristics
May change over time •
May be altered by environmental factors •
•
Sensation and Perception
Week 6 and 7
Sensation: Stimulation of sense organs •
Perception: Organisation and interpretation of input •
When sensing something we have an
Absolute threshold: Minimum level that can be detected •
Just noticeable difference: Smallest difference detectable •
•
Signal detection theory
First process: Sensory ability specific to individual •
Second process: Response bias
Expectations: Do you expect their to be a sound? •
Motivations: Are you more motivated because of your
previous experience?
•
•
•
Stimuli can occur below the absolute threshold
Subliminal perception: Eat popcorn•
However, the effects are only weak •
•
Sensory adaptation
We respond less to something that is constant(e.g., chatter in the
background or trains going past)
•
This is not true for vision •
•
Vision
Light waves are the stimulus
Amplitude varies brightness •
Wavelength varies colour •
•
Eye creates an image of the world on the retina
Enters cornea àlens forms upside down image àbrain interprets
the image
•
Lens
Accommodation: Altering the lens to adjust visual focus
Close: Fatter lens •
Distance: Flatter lens •
•
•
•
Iris
Constricted: Less light, sharper image •
Dilated: More light, less sharp •
•
Visual Perception
Perceiving forms, patterns and objects
Gestalt principles explain how we can make sense of what we see
Proximity: Near each other are seen as together •
Closure: Sense of completeness •
Similarity: Group things that are similar •
Simplicity: Create good figure •
Continuity: Follow the direction you are led •
•
•
Depth Perception
Indicates how near or far an object is •
Binocular cues
Based on the differences between the input of both eyes •
Retinal disparity: Objects within 7.5 metres project slightly
different locations
•
•
Monocular cues •
Based on information from one eye
Linear perspective: Lines converge in distance 1.
Texture gradients: Further away an object, the less detail 2.
Interposition: A closer object blocks an object in the distance 3.
Relative size: Close objects are larger 4.
Height in plane: Distant objects are higher 5.
Light and shadow 6.
•
Perceptual constancies: When someone is walking towards us, we interpret
it as such rather than someone who is getting taller!
•
Hearing
Sound waves are the stimuli
Frequency relates to pitch •
Amplitude relates to volume •
Outer ear: Amplifies sound waves and allows us to determine location
in space
•
Middle ear: Soundwaves cause eardrum to vibrate which causes small
bones to vibrate again oval window
•
Inner ear: Oval window causes waves in cochlea fluid which disturb the
hair cells on the basilar membrane. This triggers an action potential so
passes information to brain
•
•
Sensory information travels to auditory cortex in temporal lobes via... •
Medulla(where cross-over occurs), and... •
midbrain(inferior colliculus) then thalamus (medial geniculate nucleus) •
Taste
Stimulus is a chemical substance that is soluble
Received by taste buds •
Absorb the dissolved chemicals which triggers neural impulses •
•
Four primary tastes
Sweet, sour, bitter and salty (also umami = savoury) •
Taste preference may be inborn: newborns react positively to
sweet tastes and negatively to sour
•
However, taste preferences are largely learned
Social processes•
•
•
People vary in relation to the sensitivity to tastes
Non-tasters have 1⁄4 as many taste buds as supertasters •
Supertasters are more sensitive to sweet and bitter substances
Tend to eat fewer high-fat foods, react negatively to
alcohol, but also respond negatively to vegetables
•
•
•
Skin Senses
Touch has three properties
Pressure
Sensitivity varies (hands more sensitive than back) •
•
Temperature
Sense temperature difference between skin and object •
•
Pain
No specific physical stimulus (i.e., no “pain waves”) •
Many stimuli trigger pain (e.g., sound, light, pressure,
temperature)
•
Two pathways for pain to reach the brain
Fast pathway: Localised pain; relays quickly to cortex
Sharp pain when first cut yourself •
•
Slow pathway: Two seconds slower for longer-lasting; less
localised pain
•
•
•
•
Learning
Week 8
Any relatively permanent change in our behaviour as a result of experinence
Classical conditioning •
Operant conditioning •
Observational learning•
•
Classical Conditioning
Pavolv •
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS); conditioned stimulus (CS); conditioned
response (CR)
Food (UCS) causes a dog to salivate (UR response). A bell (neural
stimulus) is then repeatedly rang when food (UCS) is present. Thus,
eventually the bell becomes a CS as triggers the CR of salivating
•
•
Types of Classical Conditioning
Three types of classical conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together
Bell rings at the same time as the food is presented•
•
•
Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS,•
end together
Bell begins just before the food is presented•
Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is presented
Bell begins and ends ringing before food is presented•
•
Processes in Classical Conditioning
Extinction: “Gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned
response tendency”
Conditioned fear of spiders may reduce if you start to work in an
environment where you play with spiders everyday
•
•
Spontaneous recovery: “Reappearance of an extinguished response after a
period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus”
•
Stimulus generalization: “When an organism has learned a response to a
specific stimulus that responds in the same way to new stimuli that are
similar to the original stimulus”
Little Albert generalized fear from rats to other fluffy white things•
•
Processes in classical conditioning
Stimulus discrimination: “When an organism that has learned a
response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to
new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus” (p. 238)
•
Higher-order conditioning: “In which a conditioned stimulus functions
as if it were an unconditioned stimulus” (p. 239)
Condition a dog to salivate when they hear a sound •
When sound causes salivation, you then pair the sound with a •
(e.g.) red light
Present red light by itself which leads to dog salivating as the light
has been paired with the sound!
•
•
•
Operant Conditioning
Thorndike(1913)& B.F. Skinner(1953)
Operant chamber (Skinner box) is an enclosure in which an animal can
make a response where the consequences of the response are
controlled
•
•
Learning is a result of the consequences
Tell jokes àpeople laugh àincrease joke telling •
•
Basic processes in operant conditioning include:
Acquisition: Initial learning of response •
Shaping: Reinforcing closer approximations of the desired response •
Extinction •
•
Reinforcement
Types of reinforcement
Positive: “When a response is strengthened because it is followed by
the presentation of a rewarding stimulus”
Rat receiving food because it pressed a button •
•
Negative: “When a response is strengthened because it is followed by
the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus”
Electric shock turned off because rat pressed a button •
•
•
Observational Learning
Bandura(1977) •
“Occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the
observation of others, who are called models”
•
Not entirely separate from operant and classical conditioning as we
can learn vicariously from others classical and operant conditioning
If we observe our friend getting a reward because she did
something nice for her mum (operant conditioning with positive
reinforcement), we are more likely to do something nice for our
mum
•
•
Memory
Week 9
When we are presented with stimulus it follows the procedure
Encoding àstorage àretrieval •
•
Encoding
Need to pay attention
Cocktail party phenomena: Early or late selection? •
Divided attention: Switch attention between two tasks •
Levels of processing: Structural, phonemic and semantic •
•
Many strategies to improving memory
Spacing: Massed versus spaced rehearsal •
Enriching encoding:
Elaboration: Linking information together •
Visual imagery: Picturing what you are remembering •
Self-reference encoding: Personally relevant •
•
Mnemonic devices •
•
•
Long-term memory
Longer it spends in STM, the more likely it is to enter LTM •
Retrieval of information from LTM to STM •
•
Capacity is limitless •
Many varieties of LTM •
• Declarative: Facts and events
Semantic: General world knowledge •
Episodic: Particular events (thoughts, feelings and experiences)
Autobiographical: Specific personal events but can become
semantic with repetition
•
•
Procedural: Skills and habits
“Never forget how to ride a bike” •
Reading •
First learning to drive requires declarative but then becomes
procedural
•
Retain this knowledge over long periods of time •
•
Memory can be supported using
Clustering: Grouping items of same topic •
Schema: Abstract knowledge of an object or event •
Semantic networks: Explains how one word can trigger a related
concept
•
•
Retrieval
Cues can support retrieval •
Context: Remember where you were at the time or retrace your steps •
•
Forgetting
We do not remember everything
Decay theory: Memory trace fades if not used •
Interference theory: Two similar memories can interact
Proactive: Stored memories interfere with new•
Retroactive: New memories interfere with old •
•
•
Motivated forgetting •
•
Language and thinking
Week 10
Language is a system of symbols that represent concepts
Syntax: Rules for combining symbols •
Infinite messages can be developed •
•
Structure
Phonemes: smallest speech units in a language that can be •
distinguished perceptually: 40 in English
Morphemes: smallest units of meaning in a language: un-friend-ly has
three
•
Semantics: understanding the meaning of words and word
combinations
•
Syntax: system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into
sentences: sentence must have a noun phrase and a verb phrase
•
Milestones in language
Three-months-old to before 12-months: Can distinguish
phonemes from different languages
•
0-6 months: Crying and cooing •
8 months: Recognise/comprehend some words •
10 months: Utters first words •
12 months: One-word sentence •
16 months: Vocabulary spurt •
•
Receptive vocabulary is greater than productive
Early words relate to objects then actions •
•
Fast mapping underlies their vocabulary spurt
“Process by which children map a word onto an underlying
concept after only one exposure” (p. 317)
For example, train after seeing a train or sausage after
seeing a sausage
•
•
However, children can make errors such as overextension (e.g.,
uses word ball for all round objects)
•
•
Combining words
Children typically learn to combine words into sentences at the
end of their second year
Starts as telegraphic speech: Missing less critical words
“Give doll” instead of “please give me the doll” •
•
•
By end of third year, children can express complex ideas, but
often use incorrectly generalise gramatical rules
“The girl goed home” •
•
•
Refining language
Massive developments in language occur between four and five
years
•
Continue to refine in early school years •
During this time metalinguistic awareness develops
“ability to reflect on the use of language” (p. 318) •
Understand that sentences can have literal and applied
meaning
“We are packing in the room like sardines” •
•
•
•
Theories of language acquisition
Behaviourist: Learn through imitation, reinforcement and
conditioning
Vocalisations that are reinforced will be strengthened •
Simply imitate the words and sentences of others •
•
Nativist: Chomsky argued that due to the great number of
possible
•
sentences it is impossible to learn everything via imitation
Inborn propensity for language •
Language acquisition device which facilitates language •
Interactionist: Biology and experience both contribute to
language learning
•
•
There are many approaches that people can take to problem solving
Using algorithms: methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying
all possible alternatives in searching for a solution
•
Forming subgoals: form goals that work towards your overall goal •
Working backwards: if there is a clear end point, it can be useful
to work backwards from this point
•
Searching for analogies: use your previous experience and
solutions to solve another one
•
•
•
Difficulties problem solving can occur because
Irrelevant information: incorrectly assume that all information is
needed to solve the problem
•
Functional fixedness: perceive an item only in terms of its most
common use
This occurs in the string problem•
•
Mental set: use strategies that worked in the past
People may stick to this even though it does not work on
the current problem
•
•
Unnecessary constraints: people often place constraints on their
problem solving that do not exist
•
•
Levels of Consciousness
Week 11
Awareness of internal and external stimuli •
EEG can measure our levels of consciousness
Electrical activity using electrodes on scalp
Beta waves: Engaged in activity •
Alpha waves: Relaxed •
Delta waves: Deep, dreamless sleep •
•
Circadian rhythms changes over the course of 24-hours
Sleep-wake cycle •
Peak in alertness at different times of day•
•
Amount of sleep needed differs between people
6.5-8.5 hours•
•
Sleep may conserve energy, restore our bodies or consolidate learning
Sleep is important •
•
Sleep passes through a series of stages
Stage 1 (nREM): Brief with theta waves •
Stage 2 (nREM): Larger waves with sleep spindles •
Stage 3 (delta sleep; nREM) •
Stage 4 (delta sleep, nREM) •
Stage 3 àstage 2 àREM
Dream during REM stage •
•
Sleep deprivation
Deprived of REM sleep: Little impact on functioning but
enter REM sleep quicker and more often
•
Greater impacts on children
May be due to amount of learning at this age •
•
•
Sleep problems
Insomnia: Most common; difficulty getting to sleep,
difficulty staying asleep or waking up early
•
Sleep apnoea: Reflexive gasping for air •
Nightmares: Awakening from REM sleep due to vivid •
dreams
Night terrors: Awaken from Stage 4 with autonomic arousal •
Sleepwalking: First 3-hours of sleep •
•
•
Dreams
Psychodynamic perspective (Freud)
Manifest content (story line) and latent content (hidden •
•
underlying meaning)
•
Cognitive perspective
Dreams express your current concerns in a different ‘language’
Concern about exam may exhibit itself as being chased in a
dream
•
•
•
Biological perspective
Random firings which your brain attaches a story to •
•
Hypnosis
Heightened level of suggestibility •
•
Can lead to:
Analgesia: Sense of no pain •
Sensory distortions: Visual and auditory hallucinations •
Disinhibition: Can reduce inhibitions to act in socially
unacceptable ways
•
Posthypnotic suggestions: Suggestions may later affect behaviour
•
•
Meditation
Train heightened awareness and obtain voluntary control of
mental processes
Focused attention •
Open monitoring •
•
Demonstrate more alphawaves (relaxedstate)•
Can lead to stress reduction and improved mental health •
•
•
Week 12 –Revision
Friday, 26 May 2017 10:00 AM
Exam
Answer using a general purpose answer sheet •
Taken from across the topics
Introduction and History of Psychology •
Research in Psychology •
Biological bases of behaviour •
Sensation •
Perception •
Learning •
Memory •
Language and thinking •
Levels of consciousness •
•
Questions can relate to lectures or the Bernstein textbook (chapters
1-9)
•
Look up the exam timetable for date, time and location •
Check again one or two days before the exam to confirm details •
It is your responsibility to be in the right place at the right time •
Study Tips
Ensure that you read all required reading •
Write notes in your own words
Semantic elaboration •
•
Think of personal or real world examples
Self-referent encoding •
•
Use mnmonics
Rickard of York Gave Battle in Vein •
•
Distributed practise rather than massed practice
Avoid revising for exam in just one sitting •
Distribute your revision over a number of days •
•
Get someone to test your knowledge•
Introduction and History of Psychology
Week 1-2
History of Psychology
Many different branches of psychology throughout its short history:
Structuralism
Wundt founded psychology ▪
Interested in the basic elements of consciousness ▪
Introspection ▪
•
Functionalism
William James argued we should look at the function of
consciousness rather than the snapshot of structuralism
What adaptive value does consciousness have?•
▪
Influenced by Darwin's natural selection
Survival or reproductive advantage •
▪
•
Behaviourism (1913-present)
John Watson argued the object of study should be
behaviour as it is objective
Allowed for animal research •
▪
B.F Skinner adopted behaviourism
Accepted the mental processes existed but accepted
that it cannot be studied scientifically
•
▪
•
Psychanalytic (1900-present)
Freud argued the unconscious exerts influence on our
behaviour
▪
Unconscious thoughts, memories and desires ▪
•
Humanistic (1950s – present)
Emphasises people's unique qualities and potential for
personal growth
▪
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are prominent figures ▪
•
Cognitive (1950s – present)
Return to looking at conscious processes to understand
behaviour
▪
•
Biological/neuroscience (1950s-present)
Physiological bases ▪
How brain structures link to behaviour ▪
•
Evolutionary (1980-present)
Behaviour has passed through generations as a product of
natural selection
Reproductive success
•
Survival
•
▪
•
•
Applied Psychology
In the more recent history of psychology has become a profession in it
own right
Use the knowledge from research in an applied context
•
Clinical psychology
Concerned with diagnosis and treatment of psychogical
disorders
▪
First clinic in 1896 with number increasing due to WWII and
the need for screening of military recruits
▪
•
Counseling psychology
Mental health disorders, meditation and trauma
▪
•
Educational and school psychology
Supprt children, parents and teachers
School transition
•
Peer pressure
•
Identity issues
•
▪
•
Industrial and organisational psychology
Support companies with
Recruitment and selection
•
Analysis of training and development needs
•
▪
•
•
Research in psychology
Week 3
Research in psychology
Experimental research
Establish cause and effect
•
How does it work?
Independent variable: Variable that the experimenter
manipulates
Many conditions of this variable: Experimental and
control
•
▪
Dependent variable: The variable that is measured
à
the
response
▪
•
When conducting experiments, a number of factors are
considered:
Typically have two groups of participants
Control: Do not receive treatment •
Experimental: Receive treatment •
▪
Assignment to groups can be random or non-random ▪
Control for extraneous variables
Other variables that may offer an explanation •
▪
•
Within-subjects (everyone goes through all conditions) or
between-subjects (only a selection of people go through different
conditions)
Same person answers three different quizzes (within) ▪
Three people answer one quiz each (between) ▪
•
Case study: In-depth investigation of one person or a small group
Rare disorders or experiences▪
•
Naturalistic: Observation in a naturalistic setting
Beeping horns at a stop-light ▪
•
Survey: Questionnaires or interviews
How much tv do you watch? ▪
•
Correlational: Relationship between two variables
More ice-cream is eaten in hot weather ▪
•
Once data is collected, we use analysis to tell us what the data
shows
•
Descriptive vs Inferential statistics •
Descriptive statistics: Describe the data set
Mean and Standard Deviation: central tendency and
variability of the data
▪
•
Correlation: relationship between two variables
Positive or negative •
Strength of relationship (-1 to +1)
•
•
Inferential statistics: Allow for us to draw conclusions
Based on statistical significance: Are the results due to
chance?
•
•
•
Biological Bases of Behaviour
Week 4 and 5
Neurons
Neurons transmit information around the body
Sensory neurons (afferent): Information from sensory cells •
Interneurons: Connect neurons together •
Motorneurons (efferent): Commands to muscles
•
•
Neuron is made up of many parts
Dendrites: Receive information•
Soma: Contains the nucleus•
Axon: Transmits signals away from soma to other neurons•
Synaptic vesicles: Contain neurotransmitters•
Terminal buttons: Secrete neruotransmitters•
Synapse: Information transmitted between neurons •
•
Action Potential
Neural impulse is an electrochemical reactions
Resting potential is when the inside of the neuron is negative •
Action potential is when a neural impulse travels along the axon
Neuron is less negative or positive •
Electrical charge travels along axon •
When the action potential reaches the terminal
buttons, the synaptic vesicles fuse with membrane
and release neurotransmitter into the synapse
•
Neurotransmitters bind with receptor site on
postsynaptic neuron
•
•
Action potential are always the same size (all-or-none) regardless
of the stimuli
Pin prick versus car running over your foot •
•
•
Biological Bases of Behaviour
Two sorts of neurotransmitters
Agonists: Chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter
Produces PSP – postive postsymaptic potential •
Nicotine •
•
Antagonist: Opposes the action of a neurotransmitter
Block the neurotransmitter by occupying its space •
•
•
Neurotransmitters help to regulate our behaviour
Atypical levels can lead to psychological disorders
Depression: Low norepinephrine and serotonin •
OCD: Atypical serotonin levels •
Schizophrenia: Atypical dopamine levels
•
•
•
Endocrine system
Relays messages via hormones into the blood stream
Pituitary gland: Master gland •
Thyroid gland: Growth and •
metabolism hormones •
Adrenal gland: Adrenaline during emergencies •
Gonads: Testosterone and estrogen •
•
•
Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord•
•
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) •
• Neurons which pass messages to and from CNS
Somatic nervous system •
Autonomic nervous system •
Cerebral Laterality
Right hemisphere controls left side of the body (and vice versa) •
For vision, the story is more complex....•
Each information received from each eye goes to both sides of the
brain
•
Genetics
Nature or nurture?
Can look at identical twins and families to assess the contribution of
nature (genetics) and nurture (environment)
If it’s all about genetics, identical twins should be the same •
If the environment contributes, identical twins should be
different
•
•
•
Genetics can influence our physical and behavioural characteristics
Genes work in pairs: one from mother, one from father
Homozygous: Same genes •
Heterozygous: Different genes
One is dominant •
One is recessive •
•
•
•
Genotype: Person’s genetic makeup
Stays this way for life•
•
Phenotype: Observable characteristics
May change over time •
May be altered by environmental factors •
•
Sensation and Perception
Week 6 and 7
Sensation: Stimulation of sense organs •
Perception: Organisation and interpretation of input •
When sensing something we have an
Absolute threshold: Minimum level that can be detected •
Just noticeable difference: Smallest difference detectable •
•
Signal detection theory
First process: Sensory ability specific to individual •
Second process: Response bias
Expectations: Do you expect their to be a sound? •
Motivations: Are you more motivated because of your
previous experience?
•
•
•
Stimuli can occur below the absolute threshold
Subliminal perception: Eat popcorn•
However, the effects are only weak •
•
Sensory adaptation
We respond less to something that is constant(e.g., chatter in the
background or trains going past)
•
This is not true for vision •
•
Vision
Light waves are the stimulus
Amplitude varies brightness •
Wavelength varies colour •
•
Eye creates an image of the world on the retina
Enters cornea àlens forms upside down image àbrain interprets
the image
•
Lens
Accommodation: Altering the lens to adjust visual focus
Close: Fatter lens •
Distance: Flatter lens •
•
•
•
Iris
Constricted: Less light, sharper image •
Dilated: More light, less sharp •
•
Visual Perception
Perceiving forms, patterns and objects
Gestalt principles explain how we can make sense of what we see
Proximity: Near each other are seen as together •
Closure: Sense of completeness •
Similarity: Group things that are similar •
Simplicity: Create good figure •
Continuity: Follow the direction you are led •
•
•
Depth Perception
Indicates how near or far an object is •
Binocular cues
Based on the differences between the input of both eyes •
Retinal disparity: Objects within 7.5 metres project slightly
different locations
•
•
Monocular cues •
Based on information from one eye
Linear perspective: Lines converge in distance 1.
Texture gradients: Further away an object, the less detail 2.
Interposition: A closer object blocks an object in the distance 3.
Relative size: Close objects are larger 4.
Height in plane: Distant objects are higher 5.
Light and shadow 6.
•
Perceptual constancies: When someone is walking towards us, we interpret
it as such rather than someone who is getting taller!
•
Hearing
Sound waves are the stimuli
Frequency relates to pitch •
Amplitude relates to volume •
Outer ear: Amplifies sound waves and allows us to determine location
in space
•
Middle ear: Soundwaves cause eardrum to vibrate which causes small
bones to vibrate again oval window
•
Inner ear: Oval window causes waves in cochlea fluid which disturb the
hair cells on the basilar membrane. This triggers an action potential so
passes information to brain
•
•
Sensory information travels to auditory cortex in temporal lobes via... •
Medulla(where cross-over occurs), and... •
midbrain(inferior colliculus) then thalamus (medial geniculate nucleus) •
Taste
Stimulus is a chemical substance that is soluble
Received by taste buds •
Absorb the dissolved chemicals which triggers neural impulses •
•
Four primary tastes
Sweet, sour, bitter and salty (also umami = savoury) •
Taste preference may be inborn: newborns react positively to
sweet tastes and negatively to sour
•
However, taste preferences are largely learned
Social processes•
•
•
People vary in relation to the sensitivity to tastes
Non-tasters have 1⁄4 as many taste buds as supertasters •
Supertasters are more sensitive to sweet and bitter substances
Tend to eat fewer high-fat foods, react negatively to
alcohol, but also respond negatively to vegetables
•
•
•
Skin Senses
Touch has three properties
Pressure
Sensitivity varies (hands more sensitive than back) •
•
Temperature
Sense temperature difference between skin and object •
•
Pain
No specific physical stimulus (i.e., no “pain waves”) •
Many stimuli trigger pain (e.g., sound, light, pressure,
temperature)
•
Two pathways for pain to reach the brain
Fast pathway: Localised pain; relays quickly to cortex
Sharp pain when first cut yourself •
•
Slow pathway: Two seconds slower for longer-lasting; less
localised pain
•
•
•
•
Learning
Week 8
Any relatively permanent change in our behaviour as a result of experinence
Classical conditioning •
Operant conditioning •
Observational learning•
•
Classical Conditioning
Pavolv •
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS); conditioned stimulus (CS); conditioned
response (CR)
Food (UCS) causes a dog to salivate (UR response). A bell (neural
stimulus) is then repeatedly rang when food (UCS) is present. Thus,
eventually the bell becomes a CS as triggers the CR of salivating
•
•
Types of Classical Conditioning
Three types of classical conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together
Bell rings at the same time as the food is presented•
•
•
Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS,•
end together
Bell begins just before the food is presented•
Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is presented
Bell begins and ends ringing before food is presented•
•
Processes in Classical Conditioning
Extinction: “Gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned
response tendency”
Conditioned fear of spiders may reduce if you start to work in an
environment where you play with spiders everyday
•
•
Spontaneous recovery: “Reappearance of an extinguished response after a
period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus”
•
Stimulus generalization: “When an organism has learned a response to a
specific stimulus that responds in the same way to new stimuli that are
similar to the original stimulus”
Little Albert generalized fear from rats to other fluffy white things•
•
Processes in classical conditioning
Stimulus discrimination: “When an organism that has learned a
response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to
new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus” (p. 238)
•
Higher-order conditioning: “In which a conditioned stimulus functions
as if it were an unconditioned stimulus” (p. 239)
Condition a dog to salivate when they hear a sound •
When sound causes salivation, you then pair the sound with a •
(e.g.) red light
Present red light by itself which leads to dog salivating as the light
has been paired with the sound!
•
•
•
Operant Conditioning
Thorndike(1913)& B.F. Skinner(1953)
Operant chamber (Skinner box) is an enclosure in which an animal can
make a response where the consequences of the response are
controlled
•
•
Learning is a result of the consequences
Tell jokes àpeople laugh àincrease joke telling •
•
Basic processes in operant conditioning include:
Acquisition: Initial learning of response •
Shaping: Reinforcing closer approximations of the desired response •
Extinction •
•
Reinforcement
Types of reinforcement
Positive: “When a response is strengthened because it is followed by
the presentation of a rewarding stimulus”
Rat receiving food because it pressed a button •
•
Negative: “When a response is strengthened because it is followed by
the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus”
Electric shock turned off because rat pressed a button •
•
•
Observational Learning
Bandura(1977) •
“Occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the
observation of others, who are called models”
•
Not entirely separate from operant and classical conditioning as we
can learn vicariously from others classical and operant conditioning
If we observe our friend getting a reward because she did
something nice for her mum (operant conditioning with positive
reinforcement), we are more likely to do something nice for our
mum
•
•
Memory
Week 9
When we are presented with stimulus it follows the procedure
Encoding àstorage àretrieval •
•
Encoding
Need to pay attention
Cocktail party phenomena: Early or late selection? •
Divided attention: Switch attention between two tasks •
Levels of processing: Structural, phonemic and semantic •
•
Many strategies to improving memory
Spacing: Massed versus spaced rehearsal •
Enriching encoding:
Elaboration: Linking information together •
Visual imagery: Picturing what you are remembering •
Self-reference encoding: Personally relevant •
•
Mnemonic devices •
•
•
Long-term memory
Longer it spends in STM, the more likely it is to enter LTM •
Retrieval of information from LTM to STM •
•
Capacity is limitless •
Many varieties of LTM •
• Declarative: Facts and events
Semantic: General world knowledge •
Episodic: Particular events (thoughts, feelings and experiences)
Autobiographical: Specific personal events but can become
semantic with repetition
•
•
Procedural: Skills and habits
“Never forget how to ride a bike” •
Reading •
First learning to drive requires declarative but then becomes
procedural
•
Retain this knowledge over long periods of time •
•
Memory can be supported using
Clustering: Grouping items of same topic •
Schema: Abstract knowledge of an object or event •
Semantic networks: Explains how one word can trigger a related
concept
•
•
Retrieval
Cues can support retrieval •
Context: Remember where you were at the time or retrace your steps •
•
Forgetting
We do not remember everything
Decay theory: Memory trace fades if not used •
Interference theory: Two similar memories can interact
Proactive: Stored memories interfere with new•
Retroactive: New memories interfere with old •
•
•
Motivated forgetting •
•
Language and thinking
Week 10
Language is a system of symbols that represent concepts
Syntax: Rules for combining symbols •
Infinite messages can be developed •
•
Structure
Phonemes: smallest speech units in a language that can be •
distinguished perceptually: 40 in English
Morphemes: smallest units of meaning in a language: un-friend-ly has
three
•
Semantics: understanding the meaning of words and word
combinations
•
Syntax: system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into
sentences: sentence must have a noun phrase and a verb phrase
•
Milestones in language
Three-months-old to before 12-months: Can distinguish
phonemes from different languages
•
0-6 months: Crying and cooing •
8 months: Recognise/comprehend some words •
10 months: Utters first words •
12 months: One-word sentence •
16 months: Vocabulary spurt •
•
Receptive vocabulary is greater than productive
Early words relate to objects then actions •
•
Fast mapping underlies their vocabulary spurt
“Process by which children map a word onto an underlying
concept after only one exposure” (p. 317)
For example, train after seeing a train or sausage after
seeing a sausage
•
•
However, children can make errors such as overextension (e.g.,
uses word ball for all round objects)
•
•
Combining words
Children typically learn to combine words into sentences at the
end of their second year
Starts as telegraphic speech: Missing less critical words
“Give doll” instead of “please give me the doll” •
•
•
By end of third year, children can express complex ideas, but
often use incorrectly generalise gramatical rules
“The girl goed home” •
•
•
Refining language
Massive developments in language occur between four and five
years
•
Continue to refine in early school years •
During this time metalinguistic awareness develops
“ability to reflect on the use of language” (p. 318) •
Understand that sentences can have literal and applied
meaning
“We are packing in the room like sardines” •
•
•
•
Theories of language acquisition
Behaviourist: Learn through imitation, reinforcement and
conditioning
Vocalisations that are reinforced will be strengthened •
Simply imitate the words and sentences of others •
•
Nativist: Chomsky argued that due to the great number of
possible
•
sentences it is impossible to learn everything via imitation
Inborn propensity for language •
Language acquisition device which facilitates language •
Interactionist: Biology and experience both contribute to
language learning
•
•
There are many approaches that people can take to problem solving
Using algorithms: methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying
all possible alternatives in searching for a solution
•
Forming subgoals: form goals that work towards your overall goal •
Working backwards: if there is a clear end point, it can be useful
to work backwards from this point
•
Searching for analogies: use your previous experience and
solutions to solve another one
•
•
•
Difficulties problem solving can occur because
Irrelevant information: incorrectly assume that all information is
needed to solve the problem
•
Functional fixedness: perceive an item only in terms of its most
common use
This occurs in the string problem•
•
Mental set: use strategies that worked in the past
People may stick to this even though it does not work on
the current problem
•
•
Unnecessary constraints: people often place constraints on their
problem solving that do not exist
•
•
Levels of Consciousness
Week 11
Awareness of internal and external stimuli •
EEG can measure our levels of consciousness
Electrical activity using electrodes on scalp
Beta waves: Engaged in activity •
Alpha waves: Relaxed •
Delta waves: Deep, dreamless sleep •
•
Circadian rhythms changes over the course of 24-hours
Sleep-wake cycle •
Peak in alertness at different times of day•
•
Amount of sleep needed differs between people
6.5-8.5 hours•
•
Sleep may conserve energy, restore our bodies or consolidate learning
Sleep is important •
•
Sleep passes through a series of stages
Stage 1 (nREM): Brief with theta waves •
Stage 2 (nREM): Larger waves with sleep spindles •
Stage 3 (delta sleep; nREM) •
Stage 4 (delta sleep, nREM) •
Stage 3 àstage 2 àREM
Dream during REM stage •
•
Sleep deprivation
Deprived of REM sleep: Little impact on functioning but
enter REM sleep quicker and more often
•
Greater impacts on children
May be due to amount of learning at this age •
•
•
Sleep problems
Insomnia: Most common; difficulty getting to sleep,
difficulty staying asleep or waking up early
•
Sleep apnoea: Reflexive gasping for air •
Nightmares: Awakening from REM sleep due to vivid •
dreams
Night terrors: Awaken from Stage 4 with autonomic arousal •
Sleepwalking: First 3-hours of sleep •
•
•
Dreams
Psychodynamic perspective (Freud)
Manifest content (story line) and latent content (hidden •
•
underlying meaning)
•
Cognitive perspective
Dreams express your current concerns in a different ‘language’
Concern about exam may exhibit itself as being chased in a
dream
•
•
•
Biological perspective
Random firings which your brain attaches a story to •
•
Hypnosis
Heightened level of suggestibility •
•
Can lead to:
Analgesia: Sense of no pain •
Sensory distortions: Visual and auditory hallucinations •
Disinhibition: Can reduce inhibitions to act in socially
unacceptable ways
•
Posthypnotic suggestions: Suggestions may later affect behaviour
•
•
Meditation
Train heightened awareness and obtain voluntary control of
mental processes
Focused attention •
Open monitoring •
•
Demonstrate more alphawaves (relaxedstate)•
Can lead to stress reduction and improved mental health •
•
•
Week 12 –Revision
Friday, 26 May 2017 10:00 AM
Document Summary
Questions can relate to lectures or the bernstein textbook (chapters. Look up the exam timetable for date, time and location. Check again one or two days before the exam to confirm details. It is your responsibility to be in the right place at the right time. Avoid revising for exam in just one sitting. Distribute your revision over a number of days. Many different branches of psychology throughout its short history: William james argued we should look at the function of consciousness rather than the snapshot of structuralism. John watson argued the object of study should be behaviour as it is objective. Accepted the mental processes existed but accepted that it cannot be studied scientifically. Freud argued the unconscious exerts influence on our behaviour. Emphasises people"s unique qualities and potential for personal growth. Carl rogers and abraham maslow are prominent figures. Return to looking at conscious processes to understand behaviour.
