PSYC1001 Study Guide - Final Guide: Operant Conditioning, Culture Of Asia, Conscientiousness
PSYCHOLOGY1001 (PSYC1001) - Neuroscience
Topic Questions
1. What is the main cause of chronic disability in Australia?
2. How do these techniques contribute to our knowledge of
the relationship between biology and psychology:
a. Lesions
b. Recording of neurons by electrode or EEG
c. Stimulating the CNS with electrodes or TMS
d. Imaging the brain with PET, MRI and fMRI
3. To remember the main anatomical direction terms
4. What are the main types of nerves in the peripheral
nervous system? How do they differ?
5. These structures are in the CNS. Identify and name the
main functions of:
a. Spinal cord
b. Meninges and Ventricles
c. Hindbrain
d. Cerebellum
e. Basal ganglia
f. Limbic system
g. Thalamus and hypothalamus
h. Neocortex
i. Corpus collosum
6. What is the neuron doctrine?
7. How does a nerve’s membrane stay electrically
polarized?
8. Describe the initiation and termination of the action
potential, and how it travels across a nerve membrane.
9. How do nerves communicate with each other?
10. What are the different types of agonist and antagonist
drugs?
11. What neurochemical systems do these drugs affect?
a. Cocaine
b. Amphetamine
c. Heroin
d. Benzodiazepines
e. Ecstasy
f. Cigarettes
g. Alcohol
h. Caffeine
12. Name the major components of the limbic system and
associated cortical areas named below, and be familiar
with the main functions of the limbic system in emotion:
a. The hypothalamus
b. The amygdala
c. The cingulate cortex
d. The insula cortex
e. The prefrontal cortex
13. Why is depression thought to be a monoamine disease?
14. What is the mesolimbic dopamine system and what is its
role in emotion and motivation?
15. What are the major functions of the frontal lobes?
16. What happened to Pinease Gage after his accident?
17. What happened to HM after his surgery?
18. What types of memory do the hippocampus and
amygdala mediate respectively?
19. What are the main signs of Alzhiemer’s disease,
psychologically and pathologically?
1. Mental illness
2. a. relationship between behavioural changes in those who have
suffered damage in specific brain areas
b. Allows for the mapping of brain activity
c. Monitor brain activity in specific structures of the brain
d. Monitor brain activity as well as map brain structure
3. –
4. Somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary actions)
5. a. Connect brain to PNS
b. 3 membranes of connective tissue, cavities in the skull filled
with cerebrospinal fluid. Protect brain and CNS
c. Provides a connection between the brain and spinal cord
d. Structure that coordinates fine muscle movement, balance
e. Important for action and thought
f. major system for emotion and memory
g. relay centre, regulates basic biological needs
h. allows for complex thought and ability to think
i. Bridge of fibers passing information between the two cerebral
hemispheres
6. neurons are discrete and autonomous cells that can interact,
synapses are gaps that separate neurons, information is
transmitted in one direction, from dendrite to axon
7. the resting potential of nerves is negatively charged
8. channels in the cell membrane are opened to let sodium in upon
an action potential and close afterwards
9. nerves communicate in the synapse
10.
11. a. Monoamines – catecholamines - dopamine
b. Monoamines – catecholamines - dopamine
c. Peptides – opioids - endorphins
d. Amino acids – inhibitory - GABA
e. Monoamines – indolamines - serotonin
f. Cholines - acetylcholine
g. Amino acids – inhibitory - GABA
h. Nucleosides – purine - adenosine
12. hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, olfactory bulb,
cingulate gyrus – regulation of emotion, memory and motivation,
also rich in pleasure centers
a. controls the autonomic nervous system, links brain and
endorcrine system. Source of hormonal regulation, motivational
control
b. sends outputs to many subcortical structures that control
emotional arousal,
c.
d. generates disgust
e. contributes to higher-order functions such as working memory,
reasoning about relations between objects, etc…
13. the large success in treating depression with drugs that
increase synaptic 5HT, NA or DA such as re-uptake inhibitors and
monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Multiple links between depression
and anxiety
14. important for motivation of behaviour, increases reward or
pleasure seeking, not the experience of pleasure
15. Planning and executive functions
16. he was free from pain
17.
18. amygdala – fear response, hippocampus – declarative memory
19. loss of brain tissue in cortex, brain tissue full of senile plaques,
neurofibrillary tangles
Mental Illness
Mental illness is the major contributor to chronic disability in Australia with:
• One in five Australians will experience some form of mental disorder every year
• One in four of these will experience more than one mental disorder
• Depression and anxiety are the most prevalent mental disorders
• The majority of mental illnesses begin between the ages of 15-25
• Approximately two thirds of people with mental illness do not receive treatment in any 12 month period
• Mental disorders and suicide account for 14.2% of Australia’s total health burden
The Utility of Neuroscience
Neuroscience assumes that the cause of psychological phenomena is the stuff that
generates it i.e. the CNS. Franz Joseph Gall was the first to relate structure to function
and popularized the idea that parts of the CNS may be specialised for particular
mental function.
Neurons and Glial Cells
The nervous system is composed of cells. The cells in the nervous system fall into two major categories: neurons and glia.
Neurons:
• Neurons are individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information. They are the basic
links that permit communication within the nervous system. A small minority receive signals from outside the nervous
system
• Soma, or cell body, contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells. The rest of the
neuron is dedicated to handling information
• Dendrites are the parts of a neuron that are specialised to receive information. Most neurons have extensive dendrite
trees
• The axon is a long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to the muscles or glands
• Axons are wrapped in myelin. The myelin sheath is insulating material that encases some axons and that acts to speed up
the transmission of signals that move along axons. Multiple sclerosis is due to deterioration of the myelin sheath.
• The axon ends in a cluster of terminal buttons, which are small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters.
These chemicals serve as messengers and may activate nearby neurons.
• The points at which neurons connect are called synapses. A synapse is a junction where information is transmitted from
one neuron to another.
Glia:
• Glia are cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons. Glial cells account
for about 50% of the brains volume
• Glial cells supply nourishment to neurons, help remove neuron's waste products and provide insulation around axons.
• Glial cells also play a role in the development of the CNS in the embryo.
The Neural Impulse
The neural impulse is a complex electrochemical reaction. Both inside and outside the neuron are fluids containing electrically
charged atoms and molecules called ions. Positively charged sodium and potassium ions and negatively charged chloride ions
flow back and forth across the cell membrane but they do not cross at the same rate. The difference leads to a slightly higher
concentration of negatively charged ions inside the cell. The resting potential of a neuron is its stable, negative charge when the
cell is inactive.
An action potential is a very brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an axon. This occurs when positively
charged sodium ions rush into the cell. After the firing of an action potential, the channels in the cell membrane that opened to let
in sodium close up. Some time is needed before they are read to open again. The absolute refractory period is the minimum
length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.
The all or none law states that the neural impulse fires or it doesn’t and its action potentials are all the same size. Weaker stimuli
do not produce smaller action potentials. Neurons can convey information about the strength of stimuli.
The Neural Impulse
The neural impulse functions as a signal, which is transmitted at synapses, which depend on chemical messengers. At synapses,
neurons do not actually touch; they are separated by the synaptic cleft. The neuron that sends the signal is called the presynaptic
neuron while the postsynaptic neuron receives the signal. Action potentials trigger neurotransmitters (chemicals that transmit
information from one neuron to another). These chemicals are stored in synaptic vesicles.
Measuring the activity of a single neuron
Nervous communication – excitable cells
whose activity is closely related to input
and outputs.
Neurotransmitters and Behaviour
The nervous system relies on neurotransmitters to communicate information and is therefore fundamental to behaviour. Some
common neurotransmitters and their relations to behaviour are below.
Neurotransmitter
Characteristics and Relations to Behaviour
Associated Disorders
Acetylcholine (Ach)
• Released by motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles
• Contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal and
memory
• Some Ach receptors stimulated by nicotine
Alzheimer’s disease
Dopamine (DA)
• Contributes to control of voluntary movement
• Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at DA synapses
• Dopamine circuits in medial forebrain bundle characterized
as ‘reward pathway’
Parkinsonism
Schizophrenic disorders
Addictive disorders
Norepinephrine (NE)
• Contributes to modulation of mood and arousal
• Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at NE synapses
Depressive disorders
Serotonin
• Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, aggression
• Prozac and similar antidepressant drugs affect serotonin
circuits
Depressive disorders
Obsessive-compulsive
disorders
Eating disorders
GABA
• Serves as widely distributed inhibitory transmitter,
contributing to regulation of anxiety and sleep/arousal
• Valium and similar antianxiety drugs work at GABA
synapses
Anxiety disorders
Glutamate
• Serves as widely distributed excitatory transmitter
• Involved in learning and memory
Schizophrenia
Endorphins
• Resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects
• Play role in pain relief and response to stress
• Contribute to regulation of eating behaviour
An agonist is a chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter whereas an antagonist is a chemical that opposes the action
of a neurotransmitter.
The Nervous System
The nervous system consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is
made up of all those nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. Nerves are bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed
together in the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is composed of two primary systems: the somatic
nervous system and autonomic nervous system.
Somatic Nervous System
• Made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors
• These nerves carry information from receptors to the CNS. This requires two types of
nerves
• Afferent nerve fibers are axons that carry information inward to the CNS from the
periphery of the body
• Efferent nerve fibers are axons that carry information outward from the CNS to the
periphery of the body.
Autonomic Nervous System
• Controls involuntary actions. It is made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood
vessels, smooth muscles and glands.
• This system controls much of the physiological arousal associated with emotions
• The autonomic nervous system can be subdivided into two branches
• The sympathetic division is the branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the
body’s resources for emergencies i.e. pupil dilation, increased secretion of sweat
• The parasympathetic division is the breach of the autonomic nervous system that generally
conserves bodily resources i.e. slow heart rate, promote digestion
Brain
• The brain integrates information from inside and outside the body, coordinates the body’s
actions and enables humans to think. Hollow cavities in the brain called ventricles contain
cerebrospinal fluid.
Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous
system.
Document Summary
How do they differ: these structures are in the cns. 3 membranes of connective tissue, cavities in the skull filled with cerebrospinal fluid. Neuroscience assumes that the cause of psychological phenomena is the stuff that generates it i. e. the cns. Franz joseph gall was the first to relate structure to function and popularized the idea that parts of the cns may be specialised for particular mental function. The cells in the nervous system fall into two major categories: neurons and glia. Nervous communication excitable cells whose activity is closely related to input and outputs: neurons are individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information. They are the basic links that permit communication within the nervous system. A small minority receive signals from outside the nervous system. Soma, or cell body, contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells.
