AFRI 2002 Study Guide - Final Guide: Haile Selassie, Siad Barre, Mengistu Haile Mariam
Ethiopian Mengistu 1970's How he built the afro Marxist model with the soviet union.
1.
Discuss model
How effective it was; it's limitation
How it was dismissed
The Ethiopian revolution began in January 1974 when Haile Selassie's military government was taken over by coup; the official beginning of the military
revolution. It was lead by military uprisings against imperial Haile Selassie government supported by nobility. Haile Selassie claimed to be
modernizing Ethiopia but he was basically ruling the nobility and churches and not doing much for the others. Uprising called for a number of things:
Church and state to be separated, equality of religions, regional occupations, and economic equality; similar to Arab spring. Ethiopia is a feudal
state. A committee of army officers known as the DERG elected Mengistu Haille Mariam in June 24 1967 to take over on behalf of the military.
○
Marxism came into existence primarily through military coups. It came to Ethiopia under Mengistu in 1974-1991. This movement in Ethiopia was a social
revolution which sought to socialize production and attempted to transform society. It was the bloody, killing thousands of people in its wake.
○
Effectiveness
A new regime was created by taking ideas from the uprisings and creating an ideology so people can accept them. This appropriated the Marxist rhetoric
of intellectuals and students, took all the urban ideas and tried to create a military committee.
○
It happened in three phases:
The Derg declared the commitment to Ethiopian socialism (declared it as a socialist state).
§
It put in place centralized economic policies, destroyed and took over social and underpinnings of the old order. Tried to dismantle the old
regime, embracing centralized planning
§
He also tried to create a land reform.
§
○
Marxism is more of a human liberation (unity, wealth, international respect). Mengistu tried to use socialism as a tool to achieve the transformation
of the society. "
Ethiopia first
" was the basis of his ideology.
○
Ethiopia's political system started to change, seeming similar to Emperor Selassie's but unlike his, Ethiopia's political and economical system
embraced centralized planning in all sectors of the society. Mengistu embraced the Marxist view of state as the major agent of economic development and
social transformation. He tried to establish a hegemonic project, claiming they were modernists like Haile Selassie but unlike Selassie, they relied
less on the U.S. and a capitalist system.
Populations from overcrowded areas were relocated into much more fertile one; though it was a forced one.
§
Started to accelerate industrialization and literacy.
§
By 1975, he tried to radicalize land reform; nationalize the economies
§
Land for the Tillers -those people who till should own the land; similar to Trumps ideology.
§
New leaders started to create more land reform and tried to mobilize students and teachers (40,000) in order to implement this program and to
explain what the revolution is about -
Campaign for the initial land reform, 1975
§
Combined socialist rhetoric with political pragmatism (if it works, we really don't care why).
§
○
Marxism in this context described how a weak and backward collection of nationalities, located outside of Western Europe, attained unity, wealth, and
international respect.
○
Limitations
Mengistu had problems with balancing his ideas and what he really wanted to achieve. Another contradiction was that he also had links to the orthodox
church which was controlling the state for a very long time; the Derg was committed to the old orthodox church.
○
His Marxism' had a number of flaws. He wanted to revive traditions, maintain a relationship with the church which were contradictory to what he was
trying to achieve.
○
Ethiopoian socialism stressed equality, reliance and dignity of labor; Ethiopia should always be a single state.
○
Mengistu became the only power after he defeated General Aman Andom who was nominated by the people (who were not associated with the DERG and were
trying to destroy the hegemonic power, killing 59 soldiers.
○
Mengistu used a lot of violence in trying to eliminate anyone who was against his regime on a personal level; getting rid of the person and family, and
also on a community level. In 1977, Mengistu got rid of high ranking officers by assassinating all of them during a meeting; called
Red Terror
.
○
The Ethiopian People's Revolution Party began to speak out for the students, intellectuals, urban areas and all those who were against Mengistu's
regime. Started to create disturbances in urban centres called the
White Terror
. The EPRP was made of radical socialists who believed that Mengistus'
way of socialism only worked for him and catered only to his interests. They worked together with the Eritrea People's Liberation Front (EPLF) to get
rid of Mengistu.
○
It had severe limitations in terms of the people but what really brought it down was revolutionary mobilization; first in Eritrea and then in Tigre.
○
Siad Barre from '69 2.
Regime (what he established)
why it collapsed/dismantled. Why didn't the Americans or the UN help him?
what followed -the civil wars…
Siad Barre's left behind a legacy of "The greatest chaos," in his wake, everything was destroyed.
○
Siad Barre took over Somalia in 1969 via military coup and declared it a socialist state. However, when Barre used Soviet military assistance to invade
the Ogaden region in Ethiopia in 1977, the Soviet Union backed the Marxist regime in Ethiopia, and Somalia was foreced to turn to the United States for
support.
○
The influx of U.S. aid propped up Barre's corrupt regime but also increased resentment from other Somali clans. Uprisings became common and in 1991,
clans opposed to the government overthrew Barre and seized Mogadishu.
○
When people told him that there is a movement taking over the land of Mogadishu -no one could convince Barre -he felt like he controlled the land,
the sea etc.
USC(United Somali Congress) was an organization -an armed wing of the people who lived in the south -Aideed; a military officer, not liked by Barre
because he did not include him in his 21 group that took over the power. Aideed was behind the concept of Siad Barre leaving Mogadishu to return back
to where he was born in a small town by the Juba River. Barre tried going back but was unable to.
○
The people who were forced to leave Mogadishu started to become divided and fight against themselves. The building of a nation was a big task, and they
did not have a vision as to what they were going to do after getting rid of Barre
○
What you have in the USC is Siad Barre had been building a major army, he had a lot of weapons acquired from soviet union; people had access to much
more arms. His militias were very armed -took the weapons from the government once it was gone and used that to create more instability in the
country -looting things -creating further chaos
○
Main element in looking as to why Somalia remained into a collapsed state for so long as they really destroyed the main town Mogadishu. Soon after Siad
Barre left, the USC broke down into 2 groups -one headed by Aideed and one headed by the Mahdi -both groups started to fight amongst themselves.
Mahdi had a business and had access to a lot of urban people -these people are much more in Mogadishu, more than Aideed had. They were calling
different clans, went to different towns to rob it and the leader would go on to take the name; saying that he defeated that group and would keep
destroying one town after the other.
○
Other opposition groups in the south -two of them were: SNF(Somali national front)-movement created in the eastern part of Somalia(Puntland),
SPN(Somali Patriotic movement), SNM(Somali national movement-movements against Siad Barre, moving into Mogadishu as he leaves -each group is taking
over a place -SNF takes over Puntland and protects it -SNM takes over the northerners and protects -no single movements there were multiple
movements -these movements are saying they have a place and it creates ethnic conflicts -once Siad Barre leaves they start fighting amongst
themselves.
○
What emerges are Warlords -people who are armed and have a leader -these militias what they do is contest their space that Siad Barre left -they are
rivalries -predominantly creating violence rather than using methods that create stability.
○
The president of Djibouti, Guleed called for a conference in July 91 so that they could resolve their differences -he did this twice and both times it
failed. As the warlord s start to fight amongst themselves people become refugees -people started to move into neighboring Kenya, Ethiopia, Yemen as
refugee.
○
Also a problem of famine in the central and southern Somalia -warlords destroyed the agricultural areas in this region -would have food aid but the
warlords would hijack the food aid and such -a lot of people were dying in this region. In 1992 there was a food aid and it was increasingly hijacked
by different militia groups -UN started to create an organization called UNOSOM (United nation operation in Somalia and sent James Jonah as an urgent
official to see what this operation could do -first thing he did was try to mediate btw the two groups lead by Aideed and Mahdi -was not successful -
proposed that the UN would provide some force. 500 UN troops were deployed -could not pass out of the airport due to the warlords -unable to
intervene and have an effect in the situation -the media were increasingly calling that he situation was dire -
○
General Siad Barre's rule was marked by a war with Ethiopia, a flip-flop in political alliances from the Soviet Union to the United States, and growing
allegations of human rights abuses.
○
In its final years, his Government steadily lost control of much of the countryside to the chiefs of warring clans, plunging the country into racking
social and economic problems. Human rights groups issued reports citing a consistent pattern of political imprisonment, torture, political killings and
discrimination against the Isaaks clan.
In May 1986, President Siad Barre was seriously injured in an automobile accident, but later that year he was nominated by the country's sole legal
political party for re-election, ran uncontested and won a new seven-year term.
Yet there continued to be questions about the extent of his recovery. Reports of feeble health combined with the country's internal strife led to a
weakening of his grasp on power, American officials believed. Toward the end, they said, he was struggling to arrange a succession that would insure
that his family and clan -- the Marehan clan -- remained in power.
Somalia was steeped in turmoil. United Nations and United States troops partly managed to open relief-supply lines to a famished population, but that
costly effort, too, has yet to bring about a political solution and peace to the country.
○
The period 1991-1992 was marked by the most intense conflict, when the different clan factions fought for control of land and resources in southern
Somalia. This resulted in the devastation of the inter-riverine areas, consequently causing famine and the disruption of farming and livestock
production. Increasing numbers of refugees left the country for neighboring Kenya and Ethiopia at that time: the number of Internally Displaced Persons
(IDPs) increased dramatically. The 1991 formation of independent Somaliland in the northwest created an enclave of reconstruction and relative peace.
The period 1992-1995 was centered on UN and US interventions. This phase was illuminated by localized conflicts, specifically around Mogadishu.
Fighting among rival faction leaders in the south resulted in the killing, dislocation, and starvation of thousands of Somalis, and led the United
Nations to intervene militarily. In 1992, responding to the political chaos and humanitarian disaster in Somalia, the United States and other
nations launched peacekeeping operations to create an environment in which assistance could be delivered to the Somali people. By March 1993, the
potential for mass starvation in Somalia had been overcome, but the security situation remained fragile. The humanitarian objectives of the
interventions were clouded by the UN’s ambiguous goals and rules of engagement. The UN’s role in “nation building” became a rallying point for
united Somali opposition. On 03 October 1993, US troops received significant causalities (19 dead over 80 others wounded) in a battle with Somali
gunmen. When the United States and the UN withdrew their forces from Somalia, in 1994 and 1995 respectively, after suffering significant
casualties, order still had not been restored. Somalis continued to flee the country as internal displacement became routine/common in particular
regions of the country.
§
○
Somalia received military and economic aid from the United States for a promise of American use of the port of Berbera on the Gulf of Aden. But aid
declined drastically as allegations of human rights abuses rose. In 1989, Somalia revived contacts with Libya.
○
In May 1988, fierce fighting broke out in the north between the Government and rebels who contended they had been discriminated against by the Siad
Barre Government and were fighting for a more democratic Government.
A report commissioned by the State Department and made public in September 1989 said the Somali Army "purposely murdered" at least 5,000 unarmed
civilians over a 10-month period in the early phases. The Government denied the allegation.
More than 10,000 people were reported killed in the months that followed, with allegations that the Somali military had bombed towns and strafed
fleeing residents.
Amnesty International said in August 1988 that since 1981 the Government had used torture and "widespread arbitrary arrests, ill treatment and summary
executions" of civilians suspected of collaborating with the rebels.
In his last year in office, President Siad Barre promised reforms to introduce multi-party democracy.
In June 1990, a hundred prominent citizens signed a declaration called the Mogadishu Manifesto, calling for his resignation and the appointment of a
transitional government pending free elections.
He called the manifesto "destructive," and jailed 45 of those who had signed it, but about a month later he ordered their release. He agreed to multi-
party parliamentary elections to be scheduled in February but later canceled them and the civil war took its course
How South Sudan's dual orientation: Arab , middle eastern has been a source of consistent conflict. Discuss how South Sudan and Darfur have been marginalized
by the policies of successive government. Examine the development of South Sudanese nationalism and Sudanese genocide. Look at the way North Sudanese people
saw themselves and how the treated South Sudanese people and Darfur and what was the product.
History of South Sudan:After 2 decades of war they were established as the government of Southern Sudan clan oriented societies who didn’t have a
traditional state formation. Never had a history of a single state. During the Turco-Egyptian period were exploited for slaves. British period -
indirect rule, British concentrated on N. Sudan; were marginalized.
○
Salva Kiir - didn’t create a political party, militias that largely identified with their ethnic groups especially DINKA - Kiir is DINKA. Kiir wanted
to separate but had no vision of what he wanted to build.
○
Southern Sudan has 3 major resources oil, land and water. Once South Sudan became independent the issue of the oil share comes up as before they were
splitting 50/50 -creates further conflict
○
3.
Darfur:
Located west of Sudan
○
Black book: Imbalance of power and wealth -this book is the book that really opened the eyes of the world to realize what was going on in Darfur
○
Darfurians are Muslim but speak their own language called Fur. Although, they are Africans, they are treated differently because they are not Arabized.
They are Islamized but not Arabized.
○
Janjaweed’s live in Darfur and consider themselves Arab - El-Bashir told them to take over the land.
○
World was focusing on S. Sudan no one was focusing on Darfur. Darfur refugees in Chad. 3 areas are marginalized in Sudan: South, Darfur(West), East
Sudan.
○
DPA(Darfur peoples agreement) -2006 they adopted DPA document detailing the conflict and the resolutions -meeting was in Abuja, Nigeria-did not
really work out(agreement)
○
Sudan Liberation Army(SLA) -Justice and Equality Movement(JEM)
○
Doha -made an agreement with Sudan
○
6 themes choose 4 (5pts each)
Identify and describe the various forces that created the democratic rule, ethnic federalism in Ethiopia between 1990-2010. 1.
They got rid of Mengistu. Who created these new groups creating this federalism?
Do you think they made significant progress towards political integration? How is it really an integration?
Why is it said that Eritrea is the north Korea of Africa and Djibouti is more like South Korea.2.
Eritrea won its independence in 1991, after almost 30years of conflict with Ethiopia. Eritrea emerged from a war of independence fought over the annexation
of the former Italian colony by Ethiopia
○
Since the independence, Eritrea has had only one president: Isais Afwerki(leader of the EPLF) and he enforces a strict control over the flow of information,
limiting access to phones and the internet in order to prevent disagreeing opinions/voices from reaching the people.
○
Eritrea is distinguished for its oppressive tax system. It's the country in the world -other than the US-to tax its non-resident citizens more than their
global income.
○
There is limitations on freedom of movement in Eritrea. It is also a country amongst a few others with the harshest dictatorship in the world.
○
Most people are forced to join the army or to perform compulsory labor of some kind. Women in the army are not allowed to have kids or get pregnant so a lot
flee the country. Anyone who deserts the army flees the country is considered an opponent of the regime.
○
Civilians live in a climate of fear created by "extensive spying and surveillance and there is a "constant fear" that the security services are monitoring
people's activities.
○
There are three routes to leave Eritrea and they are all exceptionally dangerous but yet, a lot of people are willing to take risks of human trafficking
gangs and dangerous sea crossings to flee Eritrea.
○
Djibouti
▪In 1967, French Somaliland had a name change to
French Territory of Afar and Issa's.
Capital is Djibouti
▪In 1992, there was a constitutional change.
▪In 1999, Gouled left and handed power over to his nephew Ismail Guelleh.
-In 2008, was when he took power and he started changing the constitution.
-Came back in 2012, and this time for good. (Still in power now).
○
Economic side (Djibouti)
▪It's the southern end of the red sea
▪By 1991;
the Gulf war
, the French started utilizing the military base they had already created in Djibouti.
▪In 2011 (9/11), the Americans created the
largest counter-terrorist
base in Africa in Djibouti.
▪
Somali piracy
; happening in punt land.
Multinational naval operation: composed of Russians, Chinese, Japanese and Indians.
○
Served as a commercial/trading centre
○
▪War between Ethiopia and Eritrea.
▪
Dubai
started creating ports in Djibouti where they could store products by significantly extending the ports.
1970's has been a period of crisis and renewal. Critically examine the view of the cause of political changes in the Horn of Africa. 3.
E.g. in 1970's many political changes. What are they? Analyaze the changes.
Mengistu comes in, Siad Barre comes in etc.
REFER TO MENGISTU AND SIAD BAREE SECTIONS
○
Compare and contrast politicized Islam in Sudan conflict and Somalia. 4.
Policies of indirect rule, which were applied more vigorously after the 1920s to combat nationalist stirrings, culminated in the 1930 “Southern Policy,”
which isolated peripheral areas of Sudan—especially the south—leaving them undeveloped and thus unprepared for political independence.5 In addition, there
has always existed competition, especially between the northern and southern regions, for scarce resources, including: labor, prime agricultural and grazing
land, the Nile waters, and rich mineral and oil reserves. These and other sources of conflict in Sudan suggest that the issue of religion is but one factor
among many
○
Islamic movements is also emerging in the 2000s in
Somalia
○
○Somalia, Somaliland and Djibouti are Islamic countries. The polarization issue they have to worry about involves Islamic fundamentalism. However, what was
most noticeable was not fundamentalism (politicized, almost fanatical Islam) but an Islamic revival movement, i.e., a thirst for religiosity after so many
calamities and as a reaction to what was perceived as Siad's anti-Islamism. Clanism among Somalis plays a role in tempering the potential role of politicized
Islam.
Shabaab(Arabic word for Youth) -in 1997 in Mogadishu they created Sharia courts(Sharia is Islamic law) -because of warlordism and instability some
religious leaders came together and said why don’t we use the Islamic law to create stability - Somalis are Muslims -but they are traditional Muslims, not
politicized Islam’s
○
Islamic courts union(Basis of Al Shabaab) -elected Ahmed.
○
The TFG does not want the Muslim associations -felt like this movement wanted to take their place
○
Pirates started to become a problem, happening in the Indian ocean and red sea –were hijacking
○
ICU(Islamic Courts Union) will have a lot of groups and people against them include the U.S. who sees them as destructive group.
○
The Americans empowered the warlords; wanted them to kill the leaders of the ICU -did not succeed. Americans are fearful of this rise of Islamic government.
Americans spoke to the Ethiopians stating army should take over-American forces and airplanes and Ethiopian forces came to Mogadishu took over Mogadishu and
southern Somalia. Creating something that will give more support to the courts -defeated the ICU -Ethiopia then moves into Somalia and colonizes it.
○
Create an action called AMISON(African mission in Somalia) - Started to try to find a solution for Somalia’s issues, as Ethiopia took over the Islamic
courts have a new name Al Shabaab(Radical wing of Islamic courts) -
○
Solution was to get the president of the Al shaabaab(Ahmed) to become president of the TFG (Transitional Federal Government). The shabaab has multiple
groups -a congregation of various groups -used tactics such as roadside bombs and suicide attacks -early 2009 they become more like the Afghani Taliban -
moving away from more moderate elements, get financed in various forms, extortions in the name of taxes. The leaders have linked themselves with
international groups of al-Qaeda.
○
Traditional Islam is not Al-Shabaab -it is more accommodating and not interested in politics
○
How do you suppose that most of the countries of the Horn have significant civil or ethnic conflicts, but Djibouti remains poor and relatively stable. 5.
Select
two civil wars/conflicts
in the Horn and discuss the causes and consequences and how they ended.
6.
Ethiopia VS Somalia:
Pan-Somalism movement -- > Means Somalis were divided and wanted to go back and create one single Somali state(Italian Somalia, British Somalia,
French Somalia)
§
Clash in 1963 btw Ethiopia and Somalia (Ogaden War) -Eastern Ethiopian State
§
1977 war btw Siad Barre and Mengistu
§
Somalis was getting military aid from Soviet union due to Ethiopians being pro west because that Somalis accepted the soviet union who also needed
access to the red sea so they had ports in Somalia.
§
Ethiopia was also having a lot of problems, disarray, a lot of resistance by ethnic groups in Ethiopia. Mengistu eventually goes to the soviet union ,
soviet then drops Somalia in favor for bigger population and country, started to help Mengistu, switched alliance. Ethiopia’s relationship with U.S.
also ended. Ethiopia was given military aid by the soviet union, 1billion dollars to really help the Mengistu army
§
Jimmy carter(U.S.) started align with Egypt, Somalia, Sudan, Kenya; trying to align all neighboring countries of Ethiopia to become pro-west.
§
1978 Siad Barre army was defeated due to the soviet union going against him. Soviet gave Ethiopia approx. 13billion dollars.
§
○
Ethiopia vs Eritrea
Mengistu after defeating the Somalia in the east he wanted to solve the north(Eritrea) and moves into Eritrea to teach them a lesson.
§
Ethiopia occupied several Eritrea towns -failed to unlock the Eritrea liberation front in a town called NAKFA. Unable to defeat the EPLF(Eritrea) -
opened a dialog to find a resolution. By end of 1987 Eritrean groups and Tigre fronts came together and aligned -moving to take over the land from
Mengistu -start to control close to 90% of both regions(Eritrea and Tigre land).
§
Struggle for Eritrea lasted from 1961 to 1991. Eritrea wanted to be integrated to Ethiopia but wanted the federal court that was assigned to them -
leaders eventually declared that Eritrea should be independent
§
○
Finals AFRI 2002 study notes
Monday,(April(3,(2017
16:23
Ethiopian Mengistu 1970's How he built the afro Marxist model with the soviet union.
1.
Discuss model
How effective it was; it's limitation
How it was dismissed
The Ethiopian revolution began in January 1974 when Haile Selassie's military government was taken over by coup; the official beginning of the military
revolution. It was lead by military uprisings against imperial Haile Selassie government supported by nobility. Haile Selassie claimed to be
modernizing Ethiopia but he was basically ruling the nobility and churches and not doing much for the others. Uprising called for a number of things:
Church and state to be separated, equality of religions, regional occupations, and economic equality; similar to Arab spring. Ethiopia is a feudal
state. A committee of army officers known as the DERG elected Mengistu Haille Mariam in June 24 1967 to take over on behalf of the military.
○
Marxism came into existence primarily through military coups. It came to Ethiopia under Mengistu in 1974-1991. This movement in Ethiopia was a social
revolution which sought to socialize production and attempted to transform society. It was the bloody, killing thousands of people in its wake.
○
Effectiveness
A new regime was created by taking ideas from the uprisings and creating an ideology so people can accept them. This appropriated the Marxist rhetoric
of intellectuals and students, took all the urban ideas and tried to create a military committee.
○
It happened in three phases:
The Derg declared the commitment to Ethiopian socialism (declared it as a socialist state).
§
It put in place centralized economic policies, destroyed and took over social and underpinnings of the old order. Tried to dismantle the old
regime, embracing centralized planning
§
He also tried to create a land reform.
§
○
Marxism is more of a human liberation (unity, wealth, international respect). Mengistu tried to use socialism as a tool to achieve the transformation
of the society. "
Ethiopia first
" was the basis of his ideology.
○
Ethiopia's political system started to change, seeming similar to Emperor Selassie's but unlike his, Ethiopia's political and economical system
embraced centralized planning in all sectors of the society. Mengistu embraced the Marxist view of state as the major agent of economic development and
social transformation. He tried to establish a hegemonic project, claiming they were modernists like Haile Selassie but unlike Selassie, they relied
less on the U.S. and a capitalist system.
Populations from overcrowded areas were relocated into much more fertile one; though it was a forced one.
§
Started to accelerate industrialization and literacy.
§
By 1975, he tried to radicalize land reform; nationalize the economies
§
Land for the Tillers -those people who till should own the land; similar to Trumps ideology.
§
New leaders started to create more land reform and tried to mobilize students and teachers (40,000) in order to implement this program and to
explain what the revolution is about -
Campaign for the initial land reform, 1975
§
Combined socialist rhetoric with political pragmatism (if it works, we really don't care why).
§
○
Marxism in this context described how a weak and backward collection of nationalities, located outside of Western Europe, attained unity, wealth, and
international respect.
○
Limitations
Mengistu had problems with balancing his ideas and what he really wanted to achieve. Another contradiction was that he also had links to the orthodox
church which was controlling the state for a very long time; the Derg was committed to the old orthodox church.
○
His Marxism' had a number of flaws. He wanted to revive traditions, maintain a relationship with the church which were contradictory to what he was
trying to achieve.
○
Ethiopoian socialism stressed equality, reliance and dignity of labor; Ethiopia should always be a single state.
○
Mengistu became the only power after he defeated General Aman Andom who was nominated by the people (who were not associated with the DERG and were
trying to destroy the hegemonic power, killing 59 soldiers.
○
Mengistu used a lot of violence in trying to eliminate anyone who was against his regime on a personal level; getting rid of the person and family, and
also on a community level. In 1977, Mengistu got rid of high ranking officers by assassinating all of them during a meeting; called
Red Terror
.
○
The Ethiopian People's Revolution Party began to speak out for the students, intellectuals, urban areas and all those who were against Mengistu's
regime. Started to create disturbances in urban centres called the
White Terror
. The EPRP was made of radical socialists who believed that Mengistus'
way of socialism only worked for him and catered only to his interests. They worked together with the Eritrea People's Liberation Front (EPLF) to get
rid of Mengistu.
○
It had severe limitations in terms of the people but what really brought it down was revolutionary mobilization; first in Eritrea and then in Tigre.
○
Siad Barre from '69 2.
Regime (what he established)
why it collapsed/dismantled. Why didn't the Americans or the UN help him?
what followed -the civil wars…
Siad Barre's left behind a legacy of "The greatest chaos," in his wake, everything was destroyed.
○
Siad Barre took over Somalia in 1969 via military coup and declared it a socialist state. However, when Barre used Soviet military assistance to invade
the Ogaden region in Ethiopia in 1977, the Soviet Union backed the Marxist regime in Ethiopia, and Somalia was foreced to turn to the United States for
support.
○
The influx of U.S. aid propped up Barre's corrupt regime but also increased resentment from other Somali clans. Uprisings became common and in 1991,
clans opposed to the government overthrew Barre and seized Mogadishu.
○
When people told him that there is a movement taking over the land of Mogadishu -no one could convince Barre -he felt like he controlled the land,
the sea etc.
USC(United Somali Congress) was an organization -an armed wing of the people who lived in the south -Aideed; a military officer, not liked by Barre
because he did not include him in his 21 group that took over the power. Aideed was behind the concept of Siad Barre leaving Mogadishu to return back
to where he was born in a small town by the Juba River. Barre tried going back but was unable to.
○
The people who were forced to leave Mogadishu started to become divided and fight against themselves. The building of a nation was a big task, and they
did not have a vision as to what they were going to do after getting rid of Barre
○
What you have in the USC is Siad Barre had been building a major army, he had a lot of weapons acquired from soviet union; people had access to much
more arms. His militias were very armed -took the weapons from the government once it was gone and used that to create more instability in the
country -looting things -creating further chaos
○
Main element in looking as to why Somalia remained into a collapsed state for so long as they really destroyed the main town Mogadishu. Soon after Siad
Barre left, the USC broke down into 2 groups -one headed by Aideed and one headed by the Mahdi -both groups started to fight amongst themselves.
Mahdi had a business and had access to a lot of urban people -these people are much more in Mogadishu, more than Aideed had. They were calling
different clans, went to different towns to rob it and the leader would go on to take the name; saying that he defeated that group and would keep
destroying one town after the other.
○
Other opposition groups in the south -two of them were: SNF(Somali national front)-movement created in the eastern part of Somalia(Puntland),
SPN(Somali Patriotic movement), SNM(Somali national movement-movements against Siad Barre, moving into Mogadishu as he leaves -each group is taking
over a place -SNF takes over Puntland and protects it -SNM takes over the northerners and protects -no single movements there were multiple
movements -these movements are saying they have a place and it creates ethnic conflicts -once Siad Barre leaves they start fighting amongst
themselves.
○
What emerges are Warlords -people who are armed and have a leader -these militias what they do is contest their space that Siad Barre left -they are
rivalries -predominantly creating violence rather than using methods that create stability.
○
The president of Djibouti, Guleed called for a conference in July 91 so that they could resolve their differences -he did this twice and both times it
failed. As the warlord s start to fight amongst themselves people become refugees -people started to move into neighboring Kenya, Ethiopia, Yemen as
refugee.
○
Also a problem of famine in the central and southern Somalia -warlords destroyed the agricultural areas in this region -would have food aid but the
warlords would hijack the food aid and such -a lot of people were dying in this region. In 1992 there was a food aid and it was increasingly hijacked
by different militia groups -UN started to create an organization called UNOSOM (United nation operation in Somalia and sent James Jonah as an urgent
official to see what this operation could do -first thing he did was try to mediate btw the two groups lead by Aideed and Mahdi -was not successful -
proposed that the UN would provide some force. 500 UN troops were deployed -could not pass out of the airport due to the warlords -unable to
intervene and have an effect in the situation -the media were increasingly calling that he situation was dire -
○
General Siad Barre's rule was marked by a war with Ethiopia, a flip-flop in political alliances from the Soviet Union to the United States, and growing
allegations of human rights abuses.
○
In its final years, his Government steadily lost control of much of the countryside to the chiefs of warring clans, plunging the country into racking
social and economic problems. Human rights groups issued reports citing a consistent pattern of political imprisonment, torture, political killings and
discrimination against the Isaaks clan.
In May 1986, President Siad Barre was seriously injured in an automobile accident, but later that year he was nominated by the country's sole legal
political party for re-election, ran uncontested and won a new seven-year term.
Yet there continued to be questions about the extent of his recovery. Reports of feeble health combined with the country's internal strife led to a
weakening of his grasp on power, American officials believed. Toward the end, they said, he was struggling to arrange a succession that would insure
that his family and clan -- the Marehan clan -- remained in power.
Somalia was steeped in turmoil. United Nations and United States troops partly managed to open relief-supply lines to a famished population, but that
costly effort, too, has yet to bring about a political solution and peace to the country.
○
The period 1991-1992 was marked by the most intense conflict, when the different clan factions fought for control of land and resources in southern
Somalia. This resulted in the devastation of the inter-riverine areas, consequently causing famine and the disruption of farming and livestock
production. Increasing numbers of refugees left the country for neighboring Kenya and Ethiopia at that time: the number of Internally Displaced Persons
(IDPs) increased dramatically. The 1991 formation of independent Somaliland in the northwest created an enclave of reconstruction and relative peace.
The period 1992-1995 was centered on UN and US interventions. This phase was illuminated by localized conflicts, specifically around Mogadishu.
Fighting among rival faction leaders in the south resulted in the killing, dislocation, and starvation of thousands of Somalis, and led the United
Nations to intervene militarily. In 1992, responding to the political chaos and humanitarian disaster in Somalia, the United States and other
nations launched peacekeeping operations to create an environment in which assistance could be delivered to the Somali people. By March 1993, the
potential for mass starvation in Somalia had been overcome, but the security situation remained fragile. The humanitarian objectives of the
interventions were clouded by the UN’s ambiguous goals and rules of engagement. The UN’s role in “nation building” became a rallying point for
united Somali opposition. On 03 October 1993, US troops received significant causalities (19 dead over 80 others wounded) in a battle with Somali
gunmen. When the United States and the UN withdrew their forces from Somalia, in 1994 and 1995 respectively, after suffering significant
casualties, order still had not been restored. Somalis continued to flee the country as internal displacement became routine/common in particular
regions of the country.
§
○
Somalia received military and economic aid from the United States for a promise of American use of the port of Berbera on the Gulf of Aden. But aid
declined drastically as allegations of human rights abuses rose. In 1989, Somalia revived contacts with Libya.
○
In May 1988, fierce fighting broke out in the north between the Government and rebels who contended they had been discriminated against by the Siad
Barre Government and were fighting for a more democratic Government.
A report commissioned by the State Department and made public in September 1989 said the Somali Army "purposely murdered" at least 5,000 unarmed
civilians over a 10-month period in the early phases. The Government denied the allegation.
More than 10,000 people were reported killed in the months that followed, with allegations that the Somali military had bombed towns and strafed
fleeing residents.
Amnesty International said in August 1988 that since 1981 the Government had used torture and "widespread arbitrary arrests, ill treatment and summary
executions" of civilians suspected of collaborating with the rebels.
In his last year in office, President Siad Barre promised reforms to introduce multi-party democracy.
In June 1990, a hundred prominent citizens signed a declaration called the Mogadishu Manifesto, calling for his resignation and the appointment of a
transitional government pending free elections.
He called the manifesto "destructive," and jailed 45 of those who had signed it, but about a month later he ordered their release. He agreed to multi-
party parliamentary elections to be scheduled in February but later canceled them and the civil war took its course
How South Sudan's dual orientation: Arab , middle eastern has been a source of consistent conflict. Discuss how South Sudan and Darfur have been marginalized
by the policies of successive government. Examine the development of South Sudanese nationalism and Sudanese genocide. Look at the way North Sudanese people
saw themselves and how the treated South Sudanese people and Darfur and what was the product.
History of South Sudan:After 2 decades of war they were established as the government of Southern Sudan clan oriented societies who didn’t have a
traditional state formation. Never had a history of a single state. During the Turco-Egyptian period were exploited for slaves. British period -
indirect rule, British concentrated on N. Sudan; were marginalized.
○
Salva Kiir - didn’t create a political party, militias that largely identified with their ethnic groups especially DINKA - Kiir is DINKA. Kiir wanted
to separate but had no vision of what he wanted to build.
○
Southern Sudan has 3 major resources oil, land and water. Once South Sudan became independent the issue of the oil share comes up as before they were
splitting 50/50 -creates further conflict
○
3.
Darfur:
Located west of Sudan
○
Black book: Imbalance of power and wealth -this book is the book that really opened the eyes of the world to realize what was going on in Darfur
○
Darfurians are Muslim but speak their own language called Fur. Although, they are Africans, they are treated differently because they are not Arabized.
They are Islamized but not Arabized.
○
Janjaweed’s live in Darfur and consider themselves Arab - El-Bashir told them to take over the land.
○
World was focusing on S. Sudan no one was focusing on Darfur. Darfur refugees in Chad. 3 areas are marginalized in Sudan: South, Darfur(West), East
Sudan.
○
DPA(Darfur peoples agreement) -2006 they adopted DPA document detailing the conflict and the resolutions -meeting was in Abuja, Nigeria-did not
really work out(agreement)
○
Sudan Liberation Army(SLA) -Justice and Equality Movement(JEM)
○
Doha -made an agreement with Sudan
○
6 themes choose 4 (5pts each)
Identify and describe the various forces that created the democratic rule, ethnic federalism in Ethiopia between 1990-2010. 1.
They got rid of Mengistu. Who created these new groups creating this federalism?
Do you think they made significant progress towards political integration? How is it really an integration?
Why is it said that Eritrea is the north Korea of Africa and Djibouti is more like South Korea.2.
Eritrea won its independence in 1991, after almost 30years of conflict with Ethiopia. Eritrea emerged from a war of independence fought over the annexation
of the former Italian colony by Ethiopia
○
Since the independence, Eritrea has had only one president: Isais Afwerki(leader of the EPLF) and he enforces a strict control over the flow of information,
limiting access to phones and the internet in order to prevent disagreeing opinions/voices from reaching the people.
○
Eritrea is distinguished for its oppressive tax system. It's the country in the world -other than the US-to tax its non-resident citizens more than their
global income.
○
There is limitations on freedom of movement in Eritrea. It is also a country amongst a few others with the harshest dictatorship in the world.
○
Most people are forced to join the army or to perform compulsory labor of some kind. Women in the army are not allowed to have kids or get pregnant so a lot
flee the country. Anyone who deserts the army flees the country is considered an opponent of the regime.
○
Civilians live in a climate of fear created by "extensive spying and surveillance and there is a "constant fear" that the security services are monitoring
people's activities.
○
There are three routes to leave Eritrea and they are all exceptionally dangerous but yet, a lot of people are willing to take risks of human trafficking
gangs and dangerous sea crossings to flee Eritrea.
○
Djibouti
▪In 1967, French Somaliland had a name change to
French Territory of Afar and Issa's.
Capital is Djibouti
▪In 1992, there was a constitutional change.
▪In 1999, Gouled left and handed power over to his nephew Ismail Guelleh.
-In 2008, was when he took power and he started changing the constitution.
-Came back in 2012, and this time for good. (Still in power now).
○
Economic side (Djibouti)
▪It's the southern end of the red sea
▪By 1991;
the Gulf war
, the French started utilizing the military base they had already created in Djibouti.
▪In 2011 (9/11), the Americans created the
largest counter-terrorist
base in Africa in Djibouti.
▪
Somali piracy
; happening in punt land.
Multinational naval operation: composed of Russians, Chinese, Japanese and Indians.
○
Served as a commercial/trading centre
○
▪War between Ethiopia and Eritrea.
▪
Dubai
started creating ports in Djibouti where they could store products by significantly extending the ports.
1970's has been a period of crisis and renewal. Critically examine the view of the cause of political changes in the Horn of Africa. 3.
E.g. in 1970's many political changes. What are they? Analyaze the changes.
Mengistu comes in, Siad Barre comes in etc.
REFER TO MENGISTU AND SIAD BAREE SECTIONS
○
Compare and contrast politicized Islam in Sudan conflict and Somalia. 4.
Policies of indirect rule, which were applied more vigorously after the 1920s to combat nationalist stirrings, culminated in the 1930 “Southern Policy,”
which isolated peripheral areas of Sudan—especially the south—leaving them undeveloped and thus unprepared for political independence.5 In addition, there
has always existed competition, especially between the northern and southern regions, for scarce resources, including: labor, prime agricultural and grazing
land, the Nile waters, and rich mineral and oil reserves. These and other sources of conflict in Sudan suggest that the issue of religion is but one factor
among many
○
Islamic movements is also emerging in the 2000s in
Somalia
○
○Somalia, Somaliland and Djibouti are Islamic countries. The polarization issue they have to worry about involves Islamic fundamentalism. However, what was
most noticeable was not fundamentalism (politicized, almost fanatical Islam) but an Islamic revival movement, i.e., a thirst for religiosity after so many
calamities and as a reaction to what was perceived as Siad's anti-Islamism. Clanism among Somalis plays a role in tempering the potential role of politicized
Islam.
Shabaab(Arabic word for Youth) -in 1997 in Mogadishu they created Sharia courts(Sharia is Islamic law) -because of warlordism and instability some
religious leaders came together and said why don’t we use the Islamic law to create stability - Somalis are Muslims -but they are traditional Muslims, not
politicized Islam’s
○
Islamic courts union(Basis of Al Shabaab) -elected Ahmed.
○
The TFG does not want the Muslim associations -felt like this movement wanted to take their place
○
Pirates started to become a problem, happening in the Indian ocean and red sea –were hijacking
○
ICU(Islamic Courts Union) will have a lot of groups and people against them include the U.S. who sees them as destructive group.
○
The Americans empowered the warlords; wanted them to kill the leaders of the ICU -did not succeed. Americans are fearful of this rise of Islamic government.
Americans spoke to the Ethiopians stating army should take over-American forces and airplanes and Ethiopian forces came to Mogadishu took over Mogadishu and
southern Somalia. Creating something that will give more support to the courts -defeated the ICU -Ethiopia then moves into Somalia and colonizes it.
○
Create an action called AMISON(African mission in Somalia) - Started to try to find a solution for Somalia’s issues, as Ethiopia took over the Islamic
courts have a new name Al Shabaab(Radical wing of Islamic courts) -
○
Solution was to get the president of the Al shaabaab(Ahmed) to become president of the TFG (Transitional Federal Government). The shabaab has multiple
groups -a congregation of various groups -used tactics such as roadside bombs and suicide attacks -early 2009 they become more like the Afghani Taliban -
moving away from more moderate elements, get financed in various forms, extortions in the name of taxes. The leaders have linked themselves with
international groups of al-Qaeda.
○
Traditional Islam is not Al-Shabaab -it is more accommodating and not interested in politics
○
How do you suppose that most of the countries of the Horn have significant civil or ethnic conflicts, but Djibouti remains poor and relatively stable. 5.
Select
two civil wars/conflicts
in the Horn and discuss the causes and consequences and how they ended.
6.
Ethiopia VS Somalia:
Pan-Somalism movement -- > Means Somalis were divided and wanted to go back and create one single Somali state(Italian Somalia, British Somalia,
French Somalia)
§
Clash in 1963 btw Ethiopia and Somalia (Ogaden War) -Eastern Ethiopian State
§
1977 war btw Siad Barre and Mengistu
§
Somalis was getting military aid from Soviet union due to Ethiopians being pro west because that Somalis accepted the soviet union who also needed
access to the red sea so they had ports in Somalia.
§
Ethiopia was also having a lot of problems, disarray, a lot of resistance by ethnic groups in Ethiopia. Mengistu eventually goes to the soviet union ,
soviet then drops Somalia in favor for bigger population and country, started to help Mengistu, switched alliance. Ethiopia’s relationship with U.S.
also ended. Ethiopia was given military aid by the soviet union, 1billion dollars to really help the Mengistu army
§
Jimmy carter(U.S.) started align with Egypt, Somalia, Sudan, Kenya; trying to align all neighboring countries of Ethiopia to become pro-west.
§
1978 Siad Barre army was defeated due to the soviet union going against him. Soviet gave Ethiopia approx. 13billion dollars.
§
○
Ethiopia vs Eritrea
Mengistu after defeating the Somalia in the east he wanted to solve the north(Eritrea) and moves into Eritrea to teach them a lesson.
§
Ethiopia occupied several Eritrea towns -failed to unlock the Eritrea liberation front in a town called NAKFA. Unable to defeat the EPLF(Eritrea) -
opened a dialog to find a resolution. By end of 1987 Eritrean groups and Tigre fronts came together and aligned -moving to take over the land from
Mengistu -start to control close to 90% of both regions(Eritrea and Tigre land).
§
Struggle for Eritrea lasted from 1961 to 1991. Eritrea wanted to be integrated to Ethiopia but wanted the federal court that was assigned to them -
leaders eventually declared that Eritrea should be independent
§
○
Finals AFRI 2002 study notes
Monday,(April(3,(2017 16:23
Ethiopian Mengistu 1970's How he built the afro Marxist model with the soviet union. 1.
Discuss model
How effective it was; it's limitation
How it was dismissed
The Ethiopian revolution began in January 1974 when Haile Selassie's military government was taken over by coup; the official beginning of the military
revolution. It was lead by military uprisings against imperial Haile Selassie government supported by nobility. Haile Selassie claimed to be
modernizing Ethiopia but he was basically ruling the nobility and churches and not doing much for the others. Uprising called for a number of things:
Church and state to be separated, equality of religions, regional occupations, and economic equality; similar to Arab spring. Ethiopia is a feudal
state. A committee of army officers known as the DERG elected Mengistu Haille Mariam in June 24 1967 to take over on behalf of the military.
○
Marxism came into existence primarily through military coups. It came to Ethiopia under Mengistu in 1974-1991. This movement in Ethiopia was a social
revolution which sought to socialize production and attempted to transform society. It was the bloody, killing thousands of people in its wake.
○
Effectiveness
A new regime was created by taking ideas from the uprisings and creating an ideology so people can accept them. This appropriated the Marxist rhetoric
of intellectuals and students, took all the urban ideas and tried to create a military committee.
○
It happened in three phases:
The Derg declared the commitment to Ethiopian socialism (declared it as a socialist state).
§
It put in place centralized economic policies, destroyed and took over social and underpinnings of the old order. Tried to dismantle the old
regime, embracing centralized planning
§
He also tried to create a land reform.
§
○
Marxism is more of a human liberation (unity, wealth, international respect). Mengistu tried to use socialism as a tool to achieve the transformation
of the society. "
Ethiopia first
" was the basis of his ideology.
○
Ethiopia's political system started to change, seeming similar to Emperor Selassie's but unlike his, Ethiopia's political and economical system
embraced centralized planning in all sectors of the society. Mengistu embraced the Marxist view of state as the major agent of economic development and
social transformation. He tried to establish a hegemonic project, claiming they were modernists like Haile Selassie but unlike Selassie, they relied
less on the U.S. and a capitalist system.
Populations from overcrowded areas were relocated into much more fertile one; though it was a forced one.
§
Started to accelerate industrialization and literacy.
§
By 1975, he tried to radicalize land reform; nationalize the economies
§
Land for the Tillers -those people who till should own the land; similar to Trumps ideology.
§
New leaders started to create more land reform and tried to mobilize students and teachers (40,000) in order to implement this program and to
explain what the revolution is about -
Campaign for the initial land reform, 1975
§
Combined socialist rhetoric with political pragmatism (if it works, we really don't care why).
§
○
Marxism in this context described how a weak and backward collection of nationalities, located outside of Western Europe, attained unity, wealth, and
international respect.
○
Limitations
Mengistu had problems with balancing his ideas and what he really wanted to achieve. Another contradiction was that he also had links to the orthodox
church which was controlling the state for a very long time; the Derg was committed to the old orthodox church.
○
His Marxism' had a number of flaws. He wanted to revive traditions, maintain a relationship with the church which were contradictory to what he was
trying to achieve.
○
Ethiopoian socialism stressed equality, reliance and dignity of labor; Ethiopia should always be a single state.
○
Mengistu became the only power after he defeated General Aman Andom who was nominated by the people (who were not associated with the DERG and were
trying to destroy the hegemonic power, killing 59 soldiers.
○
Mengistu used a lot of violence in trying to eliminate anyone who was against his regime on a personal level; getting rid of the person and family, and
also on a community level. In 1977, Mengistu got rid of high ranking officers by assassinating all of them during a meeting; called
Red Terror
.
○
The Ethiopian People's Revolution Party began to speak out for the students, intellectuals, urban areas and all those who were against Mengistu's
regime. Started to create disturbances in urban centres called the
White Terror
. The EPRP was made of radical socialists who believed that Mengistus'
way of socialism only worked for him and catered only to his interests. They worked together with the Eritrea People's Liberation Front (EPLF) to get
rid of Mengistu.
○
It had severe limitations in terms of the people but what really brought it down was revolutionary mobilization; first in Eritrea and then in Tigre.
○
Siad Barre from '69
2.
Regime (what he established)
why it collapsed/dismantled. Why didn't the Americans or the UN help him?
what followed -the civil wars…
Siad Barre's left behind a legacy of "The greatest chaos," in his wake, everything was destroyed.
○
Siad Barre took over Somalia in 1969 via military coup and declared it a socialist state. However, when Barre used Soviet military assistance to invade
the Ogaden region in Ethiopia in 1977, the Soviet Union backed the Marxist regime in Ethiopia, and Somalia was foreced to turn to the United States for
support.
○
The influx of U.S. aid propped up Barre's corrupt regime but also increased resentment from other Somali clans. Uprisings became common and in 1991,
clans opposed to the government overthrew Barre and seized Mogadishu.
○
When people told him that there is a movement taking over the land of Mogadishu -no one could convince Barre -he felt like he controlled the land,
the sea etc.
USC(United Somali Congress) was an organization -an armed wing of the people who lived in the south -Aideed; a military officer, not liked by Barre
because he did not include him in his 21 group that took over the power. Aideed was behind the concept of Siad Barre leaving Mogadishu to return back
to where he was born in a small town by the Juba River. Barre tried going back but was unable to.
○
The people who were forced to leave Mogadishu started to become divided and fight against themselves. The building of a nation was a big task, and they
did not have a vision as to what they were going to do after getting rid of Barre
○
What you have in the USC is Siad Barre had been building a major army, he had a lot of weapons acquired from soviet union; people had access to much
more arms. His militias were very armed -took the weapons from the government once it was gone and used that to create more instability in the
country -looting things -creating further chaos
○
Main element in looking as to why Somalia remained into a collapsed state for so long as they really destroyed the main town Mogadishu. Soon after Siad
Barre left, the USC broke down into 2 groups -one headed by Aideed and one headed by the Mahdi -both groups started to fight amongst themselves.
Mahdi had a business and had access to a lot of urban people -these people are much more in Mogadishu, more than Aideed had. They were calling
different clans, went to different towns to rob it and the leader would go on to take the name; saying that he defeated that group and would keep
destroying one town after the other.
○
Other opposition groups in the south -two of them were: SNF(Somali national front)-movement created in the eastern part of Somalia(Puntland),
SPN(Somali Patriotic movement), SNM(Somali national movement-movements against Siad Barre, moving into Mogadishu as he leaves -each group is taking
over a place -SNF takes over Puntland and protects it -SNM takes over the northerners and protects -no single movements there were multiple
movements -these movements are saying they have a place and it creates ethnic conflicts -once Siad Barre leaves they start fighting amongst
themselves.
○
What emerges are Warlords -people who are armed and have a leader -these militias what they do is contest their space that Siad Barre left -they are
rivalries -predominantly creating violence rather than using methods that create stability.
○
The president of Djibouti, Guleed called for a conference in July 91 so that they could resolve their differences -he did this twice and both times it
failed. As the warlord s start to fight amongst themselves people become refugees -people started to move into neighboring Kenya, Ethiopia, Yemen as
refugee.
○
Also a problem of famine in the central and southern Somalia -warlords destroyed the agricultural areas in this region -would have food aid but the
warlords would hijack the food aid and such -a lot of people were dying in this region. In 1992 there was a food aid and it was increasingly hijacked
by different militia groups -UN started to create an organization called UNOSOM (United nation operation in Somalia and sent James Jonah as an urgent
official to see what this operation could do -first thing he did was try to mediate btw the two groups lead by Aideed and Mahdi -was not successful -
proposed that the UN would provide some force. 500 UN troops were deployed -could not pass out of the airport due to the warlords -unable to
intervene and have an effect in the situation -the media were increasingly calling that he situation was dire -
○
General Siad Barre's rule was marked by a war with Ethiopia, a flip-flop in political alliances from the Soviet Union to the United States, and growing
allegations of human rights abuses.
○
In its final years, his Government steadily lost control of much of the countryside to the chiefs of warring clans, plunging the country into racking
social and economic problems. Human rights groups issued reports citing a consistent pattern of political imprisonment, torture, political killings and
discrimination against the Isaaks clan.
In May 1986, President Siad Barre was seriously injured in an automobile accident, but later that year he was nominated by the country's sole legal
political party for re-election, ran uncontested and won a new seven-year term.
Yet there continued to be questions about the extent of his recovery. Reports of feeble health combined with the country's internal strife led to a
weakening of his grasp on power, American officials believed. Toward the end, they said, he was struggling to arrange a succession that would insure
that his family and clan -- the Marehan clan -- remained in power.
Somalia was steeped in turmoil. United Nations and United States troops partly managed to open relief-supply lines to a famished population, but that
costly effort, too, has yet to bring about a political solution and peace to the country.
○
The period 1991-1992 was marked by the most intense conflict, when the different clan factions fought for control of land and resources in southern
Somalia. This resulted in the devastation of the inter-riverine areas, consequently causing famine and the disruption of farming and livestock
production. Increasing numbers of refugees left the country for neighboring Kenya and Ethiopia at that time: the number of Internally Displaced Persons
(IDPs) increased dramatically. The 1991 formation of independent Somaliland in the northwest created an enclave of reconstruction and relative peace.
The period 1992-1995 was centered on UN and US interventions. This phase was illuminated by localized conflicts, specifically around Mogadishu.
Fighting among rival faction leaders in the south resulted in the killing, dislocation, and starvation of thousands of Somalis, and led the United
Nations to intervene militarily. In 1992, responding to the political chaos and humanitarian disaster in Somalia, the United States and other
nations launched peacekeeping operations to create an environment in which assistance could be delivered to the Somali people. By March 1993, the
potential for mass starvation in Somalia had been overcome, but the security situation remained fragile. The humanitarian objectives of the
interventions were clouded by the UN’s ambiguous goals and rules of engagement. The UN’s role in “nation building” became a rallying point for
united Somali opposition. On 03 October 1993, US troops received significant causalities (19 dead over 80 others wounded) in a battle with Somali
gunmen. When the United States and the UN withdrew their forces from Somalia, in 1994 and 1995 respectively, after suffering significant
casualties, order still had not been restored. Somalis continued to flee the country as internal displacement became routine/common in particular
regions of the country.
§
○
Somalia received military and economic aid from the United States for a promise of American use of the port of Berbera on the Gulf of Aden. But aid
declined drastically as allegations of human rights abuses rose. In 1989, Somalia revived contacts with Libya.
○
In May 1988, fierce fighting broke out in the north between the Government and rebels who contended they had been discriminated against by the Siad
Barre Government and were fighting for a more democratic Government.
A report commissioned by the State Department and made public in September 1989 said the Somali Army "purposely murdered" at least 5,000 unarmed
civilians over a 10-month period in the early phases. The Government denied the allegation.
More than 10,000 people were reported killed in the months that followed, with allegations that the Somali military had bombed towns and strafed
fleeing residents.
Amnesty International said in August 1988 that since 1981 the Government had used torture and "widespread arbitrary arrests, ill treatment and summary
executions" of civilians suspected of collaborating with the rebels.
In his last year in office, President Siad Barre promised reforms to introduce multi-party democracy.
In June 1990, a hundred prominent citizens signed a declaration called the Mogadishu Manifesto, calling for his resignation and the appointment of a
transitional government pending free elections.
He called the manifesto "destructive," and jailed 45 of those who had signed it, but about a month later he ordered their release. He agreed to multi-
party parliamentary elections to be scheduled in February but later canceled them and the civil war took its course
How South Sudan's dual orientation: Arab , middle eastern has been a source of consistent conflict. Discuss how South Sudan and Darfur have been marginalized
by the policies of successive government. Examine the development of South Sudanese nationalism and Sudanese genocide. Look at the way North Sudanese people
saw themselves and how the treated South Sudanese people and Darfur and what was the product.
History of South Sudan:After 2 decades of war they were established as the government of Southern Sudan clan oriented societies who didn’t have a
traditional state formation. Never had a history of a single state. During the Turco-Egyptian period were exploited for slaves. British period -
indirect rule, British concentrated on N. Sudan; were marginalized.
○
Salva Kiir - didn’t create a political party, militias that largely identified with their ethnic groups especially DINKA - Kiir is DINKA. Kiir wanted
to separate but had no vision of what he wanted to build.
○
Southern Sudan has 3 major resources oil, land and water. Once South Sudan became independent the issue of the oil share comes up as before they were
splitting 50/50 -creates further conflict
○
3.
Darfur:
Located west of Sudan
○
Black book: Imbalance of power and wealth -this book is the book that really opened the eyes of the world to realize what was going on in Darfur
○
Darfurians are Muslim but speak their own language called Fur. Although, they are Africans, they are treated differently because they are not Arabized.
They are Islamized but not Arabized.
○
Janjaweed’s live in Darfur and consider themselves Arab - El-Bashir told them to take over the land.
○
World was focusing on S. Sudan no one was focusing on Darfur. Darfur refugees in Chad. 3 areas are marginalized in Sudan: South, Darfur(West), East
Sudan.
○
DPA(Darfur peoples agreement) -2006 they adopted DPA document detailing the conflict and the resolutions -meeting was in Abuja, Nigeria-did not
really work out(agreement)
○
Sudan Liberation Army(SLA) -Justice and Equality Movement(JEM)
○
Doha -made an agreement with Sudan
○
6 themes choose 4 (5pts each)
Identify and describe the various forces that created the democratic rule, ethnic federalism in Ethiopia between 1990-2010. 1.
They got rid of Mengistu. Who created these new groups creating this federalism?
Do you think they made significant progress towards political integration? How is it really an integration?
Why is it said that Eritrea is the north Korea of Africa and Djibouti is more like South Korea.2.
Eritrea won its independence in 1991, after almost 30years of conflict with Ethiopia. Eritrea emerged from a war of independence fought over the annexation
of the former Italian colony by Ethiopia
○
Since the independence, Eritrea has had only one president: Isais Afwerki(leader of the EPLF) and he enforces a strict control over the flow of information,
limiting access to phones and the internet in order to prevent disagreeing opinions/voices from reaching the people.
○
Eritrea is distinguished for its oppressive tax system. It's the country in the world -other than the US-to tax its non-resident citizens more than their
global income.
○
There is limitations on freedom of movement in Eritrea. It is also a country amongst a few others with the harshest dictatorship in the world.
○
Most people are forced to join the army or to perform compulsory labor of some kind. Women in the army are not allowed to have kids or get pregnant so a lot
flee the country. Anyone who deserts the army flees the country is considered an opponent of the regime.
○
Civilians live in a climate of fear created by "extensive spying and surveillance and there is a "constant fear" that the security services are monitoring
people's activities.
○
There are three routes to leave Eritrea and they are all exceptionally dangerous but yet, a lot of people are willing to take risks of human trafficking
gangs and dangerous sea crossings to flee Eritrea.
○
Djibouti
▪In 1967, French Somaliland had a name change to
French Territory of Afar and Issa's.
Capital is Djibouti
▪In 1992, there was a constitutional change.
▪In 1999, Gouled left and handed power over to his nephew Ismail Guelleh.
-In 2008, was when he took power and he started changing the constitution.
-Came back in 2012, and this time for good. (Still in power now).
○
Economic side (Djibouti)
▪It's the southern end of the red sea
▪By 1991;
the Gulf war
, the French started utilizing the military base they had already created in Djibouti.
▪In 2011 (9/11), the Americans created the
largest counter-terrorist
base in Africa in Djibouti.
▪
Somali piracy
; happening in punt land.
Multinational naval operation: composed of Russians, Chinese, Japanese and Indians.
○
Served as a commercial/trading centre
○
▪War between Ethiopia and Eritrea.
▪
Dubai
started creating ports in Djibouti where they could store products by significantly extending the ports.
1970's has been a period of crisis and renewal. Critically examine the view of the cause of political changes in the Horn of Africa. 3.
E.g. in 1970's many political changes. What are they? Analyaze the changes.
Mengistu comes in, Siad Barre comes in etc.
REFER TO MENGISTU AND SIAD BAREE SECTIONS
○
Compare and contrast politicized Islam in Sudan conflict and Somalia. 4.
Policies of indirect rule, which were applied more vigorously after the 1920s to combat nationalist stirrings, culminated in the 1930 “Southern Policy,”
which isolated peripheral areas of Sudan—especially the south—leaving them undeveloped and thus unprepared for political independence.5 In addition, there
has always existed competition, especially between the northern and southern regions, for scarce resources, including: labor, prime agricultural and grazing
land, the Nile waters, and rich mineral and oil reserves. These and other sources of conflict in Sudan suggest that the issue of religion is but one factor
among many
○
Islamic movements is also emerging in the 2000s in
Somalia
○
○Somalia, Somaliland and Djibouti are Islamic countries. The polarization issue they have to worry about involves Islamic fundamentalism. However, what was
most noticeable was not fundamentalism (politicized, almost fanatical Islam) but an Islamic revival movement, i.e., a thirst for religiosity after so many
calamities and as a reaction to what was perceived as Siad's anti-Islamism. Clanism among Somalis plays a role in tempering the potential role of politicized
Islam.
Shabaab(Arabic word for Youth) -in 1997 in Mogadishu they created Sharia courts(Sharia is Islamic law) -because of warlordism and instability some
religious leaders came together and said why don’t we use the Islamic law to create stability - Somalis are Muslims -but they are traditional Muslims, not
politicized Islam’s
○
Islamic courts union(Basis of Al Shabaab) -elected Ahmed.
○
The TFG does not want the Muslim associations -felt like this movement wanted to take their place
○
Pirates started to become a problem, happening in the Indian ocean and red sea –were hijacking
○
ICU(Islamic Courts Union) will have a lot of groups and people against them include the U.S. who sees them as destructive group.
○
The Americans empowered the warlords; wanted them to kill the leaders of the ICU -did not succeed. Americans are fearful of this rise of Islamic government.
Americans spoke to the Ethiopians stating army should take over-American forces and airplanes and Ethiopian forces came to Mogadishu took over Mogadishu and
southern Somalia. Creating something that will give more support to the courts -defeated the ICU -Ethiopia then moves into Somalia and colonizes it.
○
Create an action called AMISON(African mission in Somalia) - Started to try to find a solution for Somalia’s issues, as Ethiopia took over the Islamic
courts have a new name Al Shabaab(Radical wing of Islamic courts) -
○
Solution was to get the president of the Al shaabaab(Ahmed) to become president of the TFG (Transitional Federal Government). The shabaab has multiple
groups -a congregation of various groups -used tactics such as roadside bombs and suicide attacks -early 2009 they become more like the Afghani Taliban -
moving away from more moderate elements, get financed in various forms, extortions in the name of taxes. The leaders have linked themselves with
international groups of al-Qaeda.
○
Traditional Islam is not Al-Shabaab -it is more accommodating and not interested in politics
○
How do you suppose that most of the countries of the Horn have significant civil or ethnic conflicts, but Djibouti remains poor and relatively stable. 5.
Select
two civil wars/conflicts
in the Horn and discuss the causes and consequences and how they ended.
6.
Ethiopia VS Somalia:
Pan-Somalism movement -- > Means Somalis were divided and wanted to go back and create one single Somali state(Italian Somalia, British Somalia,
French Somalia)
§
Clash in 1963 btw Ethiopia and Somalia (Ogaden War) -Eastern Ethiopian State
§
1977 war btw Siad Barre and Mengistu
§
Somalis was getting military aid from Soviet union due to Ethiopians being pro west because that Somalis accepted the soviet union who also needed
access to the red sea so they had ports in Somalia.
§
Ethiopia was also having a lot of problems, disarray, a lot of resistance by ethnic groups in Ethiopia. Mengistu eventually goes to the soviet union ,
soviet then drops Somalia in favor for bigger population and country, started to help Mengistu, switched alliance. Ethiopia’s relationship with U.S.
also ended. Ethiopia was given military aid by the soviet union, 1billion dollars to really help the Mengistu army
§
Jimmy carter(U.S.) started align with Egypt, Somalia, Sudan, Kenya; trying to align all neighboring countries of Ethiopia to become pro-west.
§
1978 Siad Barre army was defeated due to the soviet union going against him. Soviet gave Ethiopia approx. 13billion dollars.
§
○
Ethiopia vs Eritrea
Mengistu after defeating the Somalia in the east he wanted to solve the north(Eritrea) and moves into Eritrea to teach them a lesson.
§
Ethiopia occupied several Eritrea towns -failed to unlock the Eritrea liberation front in a town called NAKFA. Unable to defeat the EPLF(Eritrea) -
opened a dialog to find a resolution. By end of 1987 Eritrean groups and Tigre fronts came together and aligned -moving to take over the land from
Mengistu -start to control close to 90% of both regions(Eritrea and Tigre land).
§
Struggle for Eritrea lasted from 1961 to 1991. Eritrea wanted to be integrated to Ethiopia but wanted the federal court that was assigned to them -
leaders eventually declared that Eritrea should be independent
§
○
Finals AFRI 2002 study notes
Monday,(April(3,(2017 16:23
Document Summary
Tried to dismantle the old regime, embracing centralized planning. He also tried to create a land reform. Mengistu tried to use socialism as a tool to achieve the transformation of the society. "ethiopia first" was the basis of his ideology. He tried to establish a hegemonic project, claiming they were modernists like haile selassie but unlike selassie, they relied less on the u. s. and a capitalist system. Ethiopian mengistu 1970"s how he built the afro marxist model with the soviet union. The ethiopian revolution began in january 1974 when haile selassie"s military government was taken over by coup; the official beginning of the military revolution. It was lead by military uprisings against imperial haile selassie government supported by nobility. Haile selassie claimed to be modernizing ethiopia but he was basically ruling the nobility and churches and not doing much for the others. Church and state to be separated, equality of religions, regional occupations, and economic equality; similar to arab spring.
