Sociology 1020 001
Email Subject Matter: 1020 001
CHAPTER 1
Sociology
It concerns itself with theories about the social relations between individuals and groups
of people within a particular society. It focuses on “Patterned Group behavior”.
Peter Berger
“To see the general in the particular”
Identify general patterns in the behavior of particular individuals
Unique individuals
Categories; age, culture, gender, race
Society acts based on the categories we belong to
The Sociological Imagination By: C. Wright Mills
We see the world based on our own experiences; which inhibits our view of the
world
Levels of Analysis
Biography
individual
microlevel
Milieu
community
History
society (Canada, India)
macrolevel
History has an impact on where you spend your time within the community as an
individual
Anthony Giddens – Structuration Theory
Private Troubles vs. Public Issues
Products and Producers of Society
Sociological Theory
Sociology is: The systematic study of social behavior in human societies.
Goals of Sociology:
describe the social world
explain how and why
critique existing social arrangements
Emergence of Sociology
1838 – Auguste Comte
o “ a new way of looking at the world” = sociology
Understand rapid social change
th th
Industrialization 17 to 19 centuries “Positivism”
o Using methods of the sciences and applying them to society
Theories
Sociological Perspectives = ways of looking at the world
Theory: Statement of how and why certain facts are related
acts as a ‘lens’
Explains a pattern
Based on theoretical paradigms – a basic image of society guiding thinking and
research
Theoretical Paradigms
Structural Functionalism
Conflict Theory
Symbolic Interactionism
Feminism
Structural Functionalism
Durkheim
Solidarity and stability
Macrolevel
Broad patterns shape society as a whole
Structures: stable patterns of social behavior (age, gender, sexuality, race)
o Operate together to promote survival of society
Institutions: ‘subsystems’ of enduring patterns of social relationships (media,
government, religion, education, economy, family)
Equilibrium: Normal state of the system
Society is like a machine; changes in one structure or institution provoke changes
in others. Change is disruptive.
There is a widespread consensus about societal values
Manifest Functions: open, stated, conscious functions of institutions; these
involve intended, recognized, consequences of an aspect
o Every structure and institution has a purpose
Latent Functions: unconscious or unintended functions that may reflect hidden
purposes of an institution
Eufunction: A positive benefit for society maintaining equilibrium
Dysfunction: Element or process of society that may actually disrupt a social
system or reduce its stability. Divorce is a family dysfunction
Critiques of Structural Functionalism
o Too broad
o Ignores inequalities of social class, race and gender
o Focuses on stability at the expense of conflict
o Assumes “natural” order
Emil Durkheim
Society= social system Survival Needs:
Order
Stability
Reproduction
Work
Social Structures and Social Institutions fulfill needs
Predominance of society over individual
Anomie (normlessness) – rulelessness
loss of control society feels when functions don’t work together
Evolving Societies
Change from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity
o Mechanical Solidarity: bonds; things that hold people together based on
tradition
o Organic Solidarity: being bonded together based on the fact that we need
each other – Functional Interdependence
Preindustrial societies have simple DOL based on “mechanical solidarity” –
TRADITION
Modern societies have complex DOL based on organic solidarity –
FUNCTIONAL INTERDEPENDENCE
Suicide
An indication of social problems. Suicide rates vary by gender, marital status,
religion etc.
Vary by the level of solidarity in a society
Relative deprevation
Conflict Theory
Macro level
Views society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change
Highlights division based on inequality
Karl Marx
Wealth, power, prestige
Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the expense of the majority
Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to social inequality
Incompatible Interests: focuses on social problems
Critiques
Too broad
Sees everything in terms of inequalities
Capitalism and Alienation
Alienation: experience of isolation resulting from powerlessness
Capitalism alienates workers in 4 specific ways:
1. From the act of working: No say in what is being produced
2. From the products of work: No ownership of what is being produced
3. From other workers: Work has become extremely competitive 4. From human potential: 812 hours/day of mindless, tedious, monotonous work
Karl Marx
“ History of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle”
Economic processes – modes of production determine all processes and social
change
Ownership over means of production is the basis for other forms of inequality
Class: a social category based on ownership and control over means of production
Two classes:
o Bourgeoisie(owners of capital) dominate
o Proletariat (workers sell labour) oppressed
Classes have different interests – leads to class conflict based on class
consciousness
Revolution > eliminate inequalities
Social Institutions: Societies subsystem’s organized to meet basic human needs
False Consciousness: explanations of social problems grounded in an individual
not a the society
Symbolic Interactionism
Microlevel
Society arises as a “shared reality”
A Symbol is something that meaningfully represents something else
o Most interaction is symbolic (dependent on language and gestures)
o Interactions are based on out understanding of the symbols that are shared
W.I. Thomas: “What we define as real, is real in its consequences”
The way we define someone determines the way we will interact with them
Max Weber: Pluralist Conflict Theorist
Idealism
“VERSTEHEN” = TO UNDERSTAND
No universal principles
No single factor determines society or a individual
Social conflict may originate in social values, ideas and not in economic interests
only
Protestant Ethic and the Rise of Capitalism (1904)
o Highlights differences in the way people see the world
o Protestants felt Catholics lost intent of god
o They wanted a direct relationship with god and believed in predestination
o Lived very stoic live (no luxuries, didn’t spend money on themselves)
o Some became very successful and developed protestant work ethic >
economic success was thought to be a sign from God so everyone jumped
on the band wagon
o Religious ideas kickstarted economic change > Capitalism
Ruling classes use beliefs to legitimize their position, so that other classes will
cooperate in their own subordination Rationalization of Society: Change from traditional to rationality (increasing
efficiency of society)
o Traditional = cake from scratch; Rational = cake mix
Feminisms
The Feminisms look at inequalities based on gender. The study of women’s lives within
the context of the societies in which they belong. Most societies are patriarchal beside the
Mizo and the tribes of North American Natives.
Macro: constraints and forms of resistance in women’s lives
Micro: reproduction of gender through language and emotion management
Allied with the conflict theorists
Maternal Feminism
Early 19 century
Moral crusaders – Worked with upper and middle class men to improve society
Temperance movement – abstain from alcohol
Women’s suffrage – the vote 1918
Liberal Feminism
Early 60’s
Argued that if you give women equal access via education and jobs, inequalities
will be eliminated
Radical Feminism
Annoying
Earlymid 70’s
Patriarchy Is the universal cause of women’s oppression
Only way to eliminate patriarchy is to organize separately from men to protect
Women’s interests
Socialist Marxist Feminism
80’s
AGREE WITH MARX CONFLICT THEORY
Gender inequalities based on economic factors; influenced by class inequalities
Women – organize with men of the same class to solve problems of gender
inequality
o Overthrow Capitalist system together; Proletariat revolution
Common Characteristics of Feminism
Gender inequalities not determined biologically but socially constructed
o Patriarchy is different n every society :. Biological differences are not the
determinant
Patriarchy present in nearly all societies
Transnational Feminism
November 9, 2009 women outnumbered men in work force
Capitalism oppresses women
Women of different cultures, races, religions etc. experience different levels of
inequality
Structures (axis) you cant see ( age, race, religion etc.) work with gender to
develop oppression of women CHAPTER 2
Investigative Methods
taken from the natural sciences
Milgram Study
Zimbardo Stanford Prison
Research Ethics
Code of Conduct
Respect subject’s right to privacy and dignity
Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
Protect subjects from personal harm
Preserve confidentiality
Seek informed consent
Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance
Disclose all sources of financial consent
Demonstrate cultural sensitivity
The Basics
Sociological investigation starts with 2 simple requirements:
o 1. Use the sociological perspective
o 2. Be curious and ask questions
Empirical evidence
Positivism
Sociological Method
5 ways of knowing
1. Personal
2. Tradition
3. Authority
4. Religion
5. Science
Scientific Method
1. Defining the Problem
State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate
Operational Definition: explanation of abstract concept specific enough to allow
researcher to asses concept
o Ex. “Marital Status”: Married, Divorced, Single, CommonLaw, Widow or
Widower
2. Review Literature
Scholarly studies relevant to subject
3. Formulating the Hypothesis
A “best guess” about what relationship we think we will find
Variable: measureable trait subject to change under different conditions
o Independent variable
o Dependent variable o Causal Logic: Involves relationships between a variable and a particular
consequence
o Correlation: A relationships by which two or more variables change
together
o Spurious Correlation: An apparent, though false, relationship between two
or more variables caused by some other variable
4. Collecting and Analyzing Data
Selecting the sample..
o Sample: selection from another population that is statistically typical of
that population
o Random Sample: When every member of an entire population has an
equal chance of being selected
Ensuring validity and Reliability
o Validity: The degree to which a measure truly reflects the phenomenon
being studied
o Reliability: Extend to which a measure provides consistent results
5. Developing the Conclusion
Supporting the Hypothesis
o Sociological studies do not always generate data the support the
hypothesis
o Can only generalize if you had a random, representative sample
o Never Prove; disprove or support
Major Research Designs
Surveys: Quantative Research ▯numbers focused
a) Interviews: Face to face or over the phone
High response rate; Probe beyond questionnaire
Participants can lie; Researcher Bias
b) Questionnaires: Printed or written to obtain information about respondent
Inexpensive; Good for large samples
Participant can lie
Field Research: Qualitative Research ▯about understanding
• Relying on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focused on small
groups or communities
Observation
Participant Observation:
o Ethnography: Efforts to describe entire social setting through extended
systematic observation
o A researcher joins the group for a period of time
o Researcher cannot allow close association
o Ex. The Tearoom Trade
Use of Existing Sources a) Secondary Analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously
collected and publicly accessible information and data
b) Content Analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided
by some rationale
InDepth Interviews
o Uncover layers of meaning in participants responses
o Semistructured: Specific questions but flexible enough to enable
participants to direct their responses
o Unstructured: Openended not confined to core to core set or questions
Experiments
o Artificially created situations allowing for manipulation of variables
Experimental Group: exposed to independent variable
Control Group: not exposed to independent variable
Hawthorne Effect: Reactivity; When subjects act how they think
the researchers want them to act
Fisher Level of aggression is dependent variable, exposure to
pornographic material
Theory Development
Theory: A statement of how and why certain facts are related, giving a reasonable
explanation WHY a thing happened that we can generalize to other situations
• Deductive Approach: Theory ▯Hypothesis ▯Collect and Analyze Data ▯
Generalizations ▯Theory. REPEAT.
• Inductive Approach: Collect and Analyze Data ▯Tentative Hypothesis ▯Theory ▯
Collect and Analyze Data
Lose Ends
Replication: Repeating a study
Difficult for participant observation
Crosssectional research: research at one time
Difficult to determine causation with surveys
Longitudinal Research: repeated over time
Allows for greater causal modeling of theories
Limitation of Sociology
• Social patterns change constantly
• Life in test tube – valuefree objectivity CHAPTER 3
Culture
Proxemics
Edward T. Hall
Culturally specific relations in time and space
o Time – 5 minute rule
o Space – Territoriality: Defining and marking your space
o Time is very valuable in our society; notions of work, productivity, and
self worth
Social structures such as physiology and familiarity with a person determine how
far into our personal space we let people get; Distances are culturally specific
Intimate Distance: 01 feet
o Touch is primary sense
o Close relationships
Personal Distance: 14 Feet
o Friend space
o Communications ▯verbal and nonverbal o Vision is important
Social Distance: 412 Feet
o Business operations
o Normal tone of voice
o Vision is important
Public Distance: 12+ Feet
o Very formal
o Require high volume of voice
o Speaker: vision is reduced
o Large setting
What Is Culture?
Cultures vary, but they have five common components
1) Symbols
• Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a
culture
• Not understanding a symbol in a culture can leave one feeling lost, alienated or
embarrassed
2) Language
• Largest symbol system;
• A system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another
• SapirWhorf Hypothesis
o Language precedes thought
o You can’t think about something unless you have a word for it
o Language is culturally specific
3) Beliefs
• Specific statements that people hold to be true or false
4) Values
• Abstract idea or generally accepted standard of behavior
• Canadian values
o Ideal vs. Real values
o Respect
o Equality
o Multiculturalism
5) Norms
• Defining principles by which a society comes to govern itself
• Differ from values – Norms are more precise rules
• Prescriptive Norms: Acceptable behaviors: Things you should do
• Proscriptive Norms: Unacceptable behaviors
• Three types of norms
o Folkways: Informal customs (etiquette) Can be violated without serious consequences
Rules for conduct, not necessary for group survival
Ex. Coming to school without clothes
o Mores (Mos): Customs considered to be correct or necessary for group
survival
If violated, there are consequences
Moral and ethical connotations
Taboo. Ex, Incest
o Laws: Formal rules with sanctions rewards/punishments
Codified (written) mores
Enforced by formal saction
Civil – disputes between groups/ individuals; Fines
Criminal – Public safety and wellbeing; Prison
Subculture: A group of people within a single society who possess, in addition to cultural
practices that they share in common with members of the larger society, certain distinct
cultural practices that set the apart. Ex, Stoners, skaters
• Argot: Specialized language; distinguishes subculture from the wider society
Counterculture: A group of people within a single society who strongly oppose the
cultural patterns widely accepted within that society
• Usually seen as negative; seen as a threat to the established order of society
• Ex, Hippies in the 60s – free love, drugs,
Cultural Universals: Those customs shared across much of the world • Food, water, shelter, jobs
• Murdock; 70+ Cultural universals
o Music and dance
o Social institutions
o Sport
• Cultural diversity is much more prevalent based on natural (climate, location) and
social (technology policies) factors
o Ex. Japan – Homogeneous culture
o Based on geographical isolation of island
o Immigration policies to maintain homogeneous culture; one cannot
become a Japanese citizen
Cultural Diffusion: Transmission of cultural practices from one group to another though:
• Exploration
• Military Encounters
• Media
• Tourism
• Migration
• Expanding Global Economy
Cultural Lag; Ogburn; Period of maladjustment when nonmaterial culture is still
struggling to adapt to new material conditions
• Example, privacy and censorship issues have not caught up with the internet and
use of technology; torrents
• Example, introduction of automobile in the early 1900’s
Cultural Relativism: The practice of judging a culture by its own standards
• Requires an understanding of the norms, beliefs and values of the culture
Ethnocentrism: The belief that one’s own culture is superior or the only correct view
• Make judgments of other cultures based on your culture
• Can be negative and discriminatory
• Example, We refer to China as the ‘far east’, they refer to themselves as the
‘middle kingdom’
• Functionalists say it promotes solidarity and conformity
Cultural Materialism: Cultural beliefs are a rational adaptation to material/environmental
conditions
• Anthropological Orientation
• Hinduism and “Cow Love”; Harris
Urban Legends
Modern folktales
Believed to be true, but almost always false Encode values and norms; become a way for people to affirm their commitment to
these values and norms
Stories with Four Characteristics
a) Passed along by word of mouth
b) People who repeat them believe them to be true
c) Associated with some near by geographical location
d) Almost always false
Theories & Culture
Structural Functionalism
• Shared norms = stability
• Norms and values are necessary – change them very slowly
• Society depends on culture for order
• Emphasizes the way norms and values are institutionalized and serve stability of
society
• Gives sense of identity
Conflict Theory
• Norms and values are set and used by the dominant social class to maintain social
control and power
• Dominant ideology made by elites; Disseminate beliefs though education, media,
religion and economic system
• Focus on the dominant ideology of a society and way in which ideology keeps
and legitimizes existing social culture
Symbolic Interactionism
• Mostly concerned with the symbolic expression/aspect of any culture
• Culture influences people and people influence culture
• Norms and values create group identity and attract others
• Society is the sum of everybody’s interactions
• Culture is dynamic
Feminism
• Closely tied with conflict
• Analyze how dominant ideology contributes to control and marginalization of
women
o Example, Barbie Debate
Some Conclusions
• Conceptual dangers in study of culture:
o Androcentrism vs. Gynocentrism CHAPTER 4
Socialization: The means by which a human is made “fit” to live among other humans
• Essential to survival and maintenance of society
• To what extend are you in the culture, or is the culture in you?
• Individual takes a social shape based on interactions with others
• “Double Involvement” of self and society; Giddens ▯Structuration
1. We are products shaped by our society
2. We are agents of socialization; Society is shape by us
• Berger: A process by which people learn to be members of society
o Starts with “Epigenisis”; DNA; Genetic potential
o It is a life long process (most intensive in early childhood)
o Observing, modeling, and imitating
o Interactive process, outcome = self
o Cultural assumptions imbedded in actions
Primary Socialization
• Occurs from birth through adolescence (O12; Priority Effect)
• Family is the most important agent
• Intentional and unintentional
• Largely imposed, some reciprocity in parentchild interactions
• Learn language and expectation, observation
Attachment
o Attachment to a significant other is crucial in Primary Socialization
o Precursor for successful socialization
o Development of interpersonal/cognitive skills and sense of self
o Attachment Styles:
1. Secure: Primary caregiver constant; sense of trust
2. Avoidant: Negative; Primary caregiver not dependent; Child realizes
this and becomes independent and autonomous quickly
3. Anxious/Ambivalent: Primary caregiver hot and cold; Crucial
consistency not present
Ideal type: model of essential characteristics of a given phenomena
Institutional rocking: Children not held in institutions; rock back and for to self
sooth
Secondary Socialization
Adolescent & Adult Socialization
• 12+
• Occurs throughout the lifecycle – anticipate and adjust to new experiences
• Reciprocal process
• Based on previous experience
• Difference from primary socialization – more choice, more limit, and more
expectations from others Adolescent Socialization
• Anarett: Selfsocialization
• Learn independence; develop own selfimage
• Informal, individuals are unaware of socialization
• Storm and Stress – Hall; Only in the West
• 3 sets of Discontinuities – Benedict
o Children socialized:
1. Nonresponsible roles; (A) Sudden responsibilities
2. Submission; (A) make correct, independent, informed decisions
3. Shielded from Sexuality; (A) No practice at healthy selfsexuality
Types of Secondary Socialization
• Anticipatory Socialization (Adult)
o Merton: Learning overt behaviors and values found in statuses and groups
which one will likely enter
• Resocialization
o Total Institutions; prisons, rehab, mental institutions; replace inadequate/
defective roles
o Stripping mortifying; Physically and figuratively strip; rid of any
identifiers in order to start a process of resocialization
Key Agents of Socialization
Primary Socialization – Family
Secondary Socialization – Peers, School, Media
Others – Work, Religion
Peer Group
• Importance: Development of a frame of reference not based on adult authority
• Second most influential agent
• It assumes great influence in adolescence (when emotional, social, and economic
independence begin to develop)
• Peergroup influence is tempered by parental influence, as parents control scarce
and valued resources
School
• Importance:
o Reinforcement of selfconcept and “academic selfimages” developed
o Provision of social life
o Filtering of occupational choices
o Promotes values, norms of society (Example, middleclass children learn
to value academic achievement)
o Cultural Capital: Increases GPA +1 GP; dance and music lessons, books
and newspapers readily accessible, going to the opera/ theatre
performances
• Teaches about
o Social hierarchies o Rules, rights, responsibilities
o Richer – conflict theorist
Hidden Curriculum: Unspoken norms transmitted by schooling
such as competition, individualism, obedience, “playing the game”
Social Reproduction: Reproducing the system generation after
generation
• Reproduce class system; 34% of Canadian have upward
social mobility; 18% of Americans. 66% of Canadians born
into a class, die in that class.
Media
• Transmits values, behaviors, and definitions of social reality – integration
function
• Reflects social relations; socializes audience
• Feminist critique: media contributes to gender stereotyping
• Children who watch more tv are less creative and less imaginative
• Media Violence
o Desensitizes audience to pain and suffering
o Imitation ▯children are very impressionable and copy what they see on tv
o Defining social reality as violent ▯Mills; what you define as real is real in
its consequences
o Mc Williams: Notel – No television
Natural ethnography
Longitudinal study
Studied a small forestry town in BC; new satellite in space would
give 1 channel to town every so often
Pre Channel: Community center was thriving, people in library,
supporting hockey teams, respect in school, very little aggression,
dinner conversation
Post Channel: Community center was less populated, library only
open 3 days a week, very little support of hockey teams, children
were disrespectful to teachers in school, aggression and catiness on
playground, family ate dinner around tv, no dinner conversation
Notel vs. Unitel vs. Multitel
Findings: Introduction of television created massive change in the
integration and cohesion of the society; heightened levels of
aggression
• Changes in Media Use
o Started as a social event; increasingly a solitary activity
o Digital Divide: class/educational/ age differences in digital media use,
both within and between societies
o No divide between gender
Workplace • Learning to behave appropriately within occupational setting is a fundamental
aspect of socialization
• Socialization in workplace involves 4 phases
1. Career choice
2. Anticipatory Socialization
3. Conditioning
4. Continuous commitment
Socialization Outcomes
Socialization reproduces gender, race and class distinctions.
Reproduction of Gender
• Nature vs. Nurture debate: we are all born with epigenesis (genetic potential)
and through socialization in a given environment, we realize out potential
• Studies of infants and young children – few behaviors that consistently
differentiate males and females
o No difference in motor ability
o Mothers expect difference
• Women in our society have much more freedom to participate in opposite gender
activities than males without consequences
Mechanisms of Gender Socialization
1) Parental reaction to perceived innate differences
2) Differential Socialization
o Gendered toys; effect of mother’s attitudes on D.O.L
o Imitation of gendered behavior in child’s social environment
o Media source of gender stereotypes
Disney
• Little mermaid: highly sexualized
• Mulan: goes to fights a war, returns and grandmother asks
when she is getting married
• Beauty and the Beast: Love someone regardless of what
they do to you, they can change
Social Reproduction of Race
• Child rearing in ethnicracialminority families: emphasizes racial pride ▯higher
selfesteem and greater group knowledge
• 1/5 of racialminority children have experienced racial discrimination and parents
often adopt “promotion of mistrust” as child rearing strategy
o Stay and play with your own kind
• Racial socialization of mixedrace children:
o Importance of exposure to both cultures
o Discrimination
• Racial socialization impacted by parents and media
• Melvin Kohn:
o Child rearing varies by class o Differences in occupational differences (supervision, routinization, and
complexity of work)
o Lowtier workers = conformity, orderliness, and behavioral consequences
in children
o Hightier workers = more permissive, emphasis on selfreliance, and
behavioral intentions
Theories and Socialization
Functionalism
• Process of internalizing social norms and behavioral expectations
• Accomplishment of socialization: conformity leading to social integration
Conflict
• Socialized by class
• Functions to defend power relations in society
Feminism
• Socialization into masculine and feminine gender roles takes place in family,
among peers, in school, in workplace and through mass media
Symbolic Interactionism
• People actively participate in their own socialization
• Accomplishment of socialization: sense of self
• Zucher –“I Am….”; 4 components
• Behavioral Theories: learning through identification or reinforcement
o Example, Bandura on children’s imitation of voice
• Cooley: “lookingglass self”
o “ Perception of our appearance to other person; perception of his judgment
of that appearance; and some sort of selffeeling, such as pride or
mortification.”
• Mead: the “self” consists of…
o The I ▯spontaneous, creative, unique self
o The Me ▯socially defined self, internalized norms and values
o Roletaking
Development of ‘self’
1. Preparatory = mimic behavior without understanding
2. Play = takes the role of “significant others”
3. Game = learning – take role of several others at once
o Becoming socialized is moving from “I” (spontaneous) to “Me”
(reflective)
o Generalized other: A person internalizes general social expectations by
imagining how any number of others will act and react
Social Psychological Perspective
• Goffman: Presentation of the Self
o Impression management: slanted presentation of self
o Facework: “alterity” – needed to maintain proper image Psychological Theories of Socialization
• Piaget: Cognitive theory of development
Stages humans progress through as the self develops include:
• Sensorimotor
• Preoperational
• Concrete Operational
• Formal Operational
o Social interaction is key to development
• Freud: Elements of Personality
o Id – basic instincts
o Superego – internalized values
o Ego – developed social, regulated between id and superego
CHATPER 7
Sex
• Ascribed status (born with)
• Biological category
• Based on physiological and anatomical differences
• Determined as conception as a result of cell formation
Becoming Our Sex
• Sex is a continuum (Male Female)
• Obvious answer: sex is natural, biologically determined
o BUT 13% of babies are born “intersexed” “easier to dig a hole than build
a pole” Gender
• Social category
• Based on social expectations for individuals
• Set of social attitudes that can vary from culture to culture and over time within a
society
• Gender norms: rules specifying appropriate behavior for each gender – ‘gender
scripts’
• Gender is a continuum (MasculineFeminine)
• Genderrole socialization is culturally determined within a given society
Sex Codes: Premarital Sexual Standards
• To regulate sexual behavior outside of marriage; mostly for women
1. Abstinence standard – Sex outside of marriage is forbidden
2. Double standard – Men can have premarital sex but women cannot
3. Love standard – Sex is a physical expression of love and affection
4. Fun standard – Giving and receiving sex is a tool of pleasure
Sexual Standards of Individuals Today
Riseman
• Huge shift in attitudes towards sexuality
• Do people disrespect others for having too much sex?
• Studied 22 colleges
• Egalitarian Conservative – Lost respect for both men and women who have a lot
of sex
• Egalitarian Liberals – Did not lose respect for men or women who have a lot
much sex
• Traditional Double Standard – Lost resect for women but not men who have a lot
of sex
• Reverse Double Standard – Lost respect for men but not women who have a lot of
sex
Becoming Our Gender
Gender Identity
• Achieved Status – learn; process of acquiring a gender identity
• Master Status – Hughes; characteristics though which everything (ideologies,
behaviors) gets filtered though, like a lens
Gendered Order
Gendered Order: set of structural relations through which people are treated differently
because of their gender Patriarchy: A system of dominance in which cultural, political and economic
structures have been created by men and are maintained for the benefit of men as
a group
o In most societies the gendered order that exists is patriarchy
o Culturally specific to given society
o Values characteristics of males over females
Gender Intensification
• Process by which individuals are influenced to hyperdifferentiate themselves
from the other gender in terms of appearance and behavior
• Perpetuated by mass media and advertising in pursuit of $$$
• Adolescence is key period of this identity manipulation
• Film: Tough Guise
Effects
1. Gender intensification ill prepares both men and women for the roles that they
will later preform
2. Impossible standards leads to low selfesteem and high dissatisfaction
3. Emphasizes the dominant/submissive nature of the male/female relationship and
perpetuated gender inequality
Gender Stereotypes
Stereotype: Occurs when people believe that others possess certain characteristics
simply as a result of being a member of a particular group
Gender Stereotypes: Attributing certain characteristics to others simply o
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