SCOM 123 Study Guide - Midterm Guide: Symmetry In Biology, Interpersonal Communication, Denotation
SCOM Exam #2
Language
4 Elements of Language:
1. Structure
a. Phonology -- the study of sound patterns in a language
i. Phonemes -- individual units of sound
1. Ex: consonants, vowels, and consonant combinations
2. Smallest unit of sound in any language
3. Babies first make vowel sounds, then consonant sounds using tongue
b. Morphology -- study of how morphemes are constructed from phonemes
i. Morpheme -- smallest unit of meaning in language
1. Ex: stand-alone words, prefixes, suffixes
2. Free -- stand-alone word
3. Bound -- unit of meaning
c. Syntax -- study of rules governing words -> phrases and phrases -> sentences
i. Process by which words are combined and ordered into grammatical sequence
ii. Grammar
iii. Good syntax can give you credibility
iv. Symbols -- arbitrary representations of objects, events, etc.
v. Referents -- objects, events, etc. referred to by the words
vi. Word origin is arbitrary, but word usage is conventional
d. Semantics -- study of how each person constructs meaning from symbols that appear in the
form of sounds, words, phrases, and sentences by interpreting those symbols in a context
2. Productivity
a. Language transforming phonemes into whatever words, phrases, and sentences that one
requires to communicate all thoughts and feelings
3. Displacement
a. Ability to use language to talk about things that don’t just exist in the physical here + now
i. Things of the past/future, that exist/don’t exist, etc.
ii. Ponder abstract ideas
4. Self-Reflexiveness
a. Ability to use language to talk about language
i. Words like semantics, morphemes, etc.
b. All languages are self-reflective
Lexicon -- complete vocabulary
Abstraction:
● process whereby we formulate increasingly vague, general conceptions of our world by leaving out
details associated with objects, events, etc.
● 4 Levels
○ Sense experience
○ Description -- verbal reports sketching perceptions
○ Inference -- conclusions about unknown based on the known
■ Inferential error -- assumption that inferences are facts instead of interpretations
○ Judgment -- subjective evaluations of objects, etc.
● Dead-level abstracting -- practice of remaining stuck at 1 level of abstraction
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Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:
1. Linguistic Determinism -- prisoners of language unable to think certain thoughts or perceive in certain
ways because of the grammatical structure and lexicon of our language
a. Incapability of perception
b. Assumes thought is dependent on language
2. Linguistic Relativity
a. Grammar and lexicon of our native language powerfully influences but does not imprison out
thinking and perception
Label -- name or descriptive word/phrase powerfully influencing perceptions
Framing -- the influence wording has on perceptions of choices; narrows perceptions
Signal Reaction -- automatic, unthinking, emotional response to a symbol
Semantic Reaction -- delayed, thoughtful response seeking to decipher meanings of a word
False Dichotomy -- using either/or language framing a choice as though there are only 2 options
Jargon -- verbal shorthand (prima facie, habeas corpus, etc.)
Euphemisms -- word choices numb offensive realities
● Not all are inappropriate
Slang -- highly informal words not in standard usage
Denotation vs. Connotation:
● Denotation -- shared definition of a word
● Connotation-- personal meaning of a word
Listening
Hearing -- physiological process
Listening -- mental process
● Process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal
messages
● 3 Elements
○ Comprehension
■ Shared meaning b/w or among parties in a transaction
■ Steps: discriminate speech sounds, comprehend words, helps you understand
○ Retention
■ You can’t construct meaning from nothing, you have to retain some information
■ Select what’s important and then use it, or lose it
■ Forgetting curve -- rate at which we no longer retain info in our memory
○ Response
■ Show you agree, understand
■ Eye contact, vocal varifiers, literally respond with words
Types of Listening:
1. Informational
a. Attempts to comprehend message of speaker
b. You need to know what is/is not important
c. Ex: class, watching documentaries
d. 5 problems
i. Competitive Interrupting -- dominating conversation by seizing the floor from whoever
else is speaking
ii. Conversational Narcissism -- listeners turning topics onto themselves
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1. Shift response -- shifting attention to oneself
2. Support response -- effort to focus attention on other person
iii. Glazing Over -- listeners’ attention wanders; not even pretending to listen
iv. Pseudo-Listening -- disguising inattention with vocal segregates
v. Ambushing -- listening for weaknesses of speaker; focused attention w/ prejudice
2. Critical
a. Process of evaluating merits of claims as they are heard
b. Separate likely facts from almost certain fantasies and nonsense
c. Can be + or -
d. Claim -- generalization that remains to be proven
e. 3 Types
i. Cynicism (-)
1. Not open to what person is saying
2. Not open to listening
3. Ex: listening to something you already have a stance on
ii. True-Believing (-)
1. You believe whatever is said b/c of who is speaking
2. Not engaging in critical thought
3. Confirmation bias -- tendency to seek info supporting one’s beliefs
4. Rationalization of Disconfirmation -- superficial explanations for contradictory
evidence
5. Burden of Proof -- obligation of person making claim to provide evidence
6. Shifting Burden of Proof -- assumes validity of claim unless proven false
iii. Skepticism (+/-)
1. You weigh pros/cons of claims and make judgments
2. Open to hearing both sides
3. Types of claims
a. Possibility, probability, and certainty
3. Empathic
a. Take perspective of the other person to listen for what that person needs/wants
b. Think about all that person’s life and situations
c. Goal is not to make a person feel better
d. Types of non-empathic responses:
i. Advising -- tells people how to act
ii. Interpreting -- expressing underlying meaning
iii. Content-only -- does not recognize feelings, only literal meaning
iv. Evaluating -- judgment about others’ conduct
e. Types of empathic responses:
i. Understanding -- perception checking and paraphrasing
ii. Confirming -- enhance other’s self-esteem
iii. Probing -- seeks more info
iv. Supporting -- expressions of care, concern, etc.
find more resources at oneclass.com
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Document Summary
4 elements of language: structure, phonology -- the study of sound patterns in a language. Process by which words are combined and ordered into grammatical sequence (cid:824)grammar(cid:825: good syntax can give you credibility, word origin is arbitrary, but word usage is conventional. Symbols -- arbitrary representations of objects, events, etc. Things of the past/future, that exist/don"t exist, etc. Ponder abstract ideas: self-reflexiveness, ability to use language to talk about language, words like semantics, morphemes, etc, all languages are self-reflective. Process whereby we formulate increasingly vague, general conceptions of our world by leaving out details associated with objects, events, etc. Inference -- conclusions about unknown based on the known. Inferential error -- assumption that inferences are facts instead of interpretations. Dead-level abstracting -- practice of remaining stuck at 1 level of abstraction. Label -- name or descriptive word/phrase powerfully influencing perceptions. Framing -- the influence wording has on perceptions of choices; narrows perceptions.
