LING 115gw Study Guide - Fall 2018, Comprehensive Midterm Notes - French Language, Spanish Language, Grammar
LING 115gw
MIDTERM EXAM
STUDY GUIDE
Fall 2018
Unit 1: Languages, Dialects, and Varieties
Languages: What is a language and how is it defined?
Languages are defined in socio-political terms rather than a result of actual •
objective linguistic properties (i.e. grammar, vocabulary, etc.)
Must at least be grammar + vocabulary shared by a particular community ◦
BUT ... is more fluid; no two individuals actually possess the same set of
vocab/grammar rules
Cannot define a language as a single set of rules and vocabulary otherwise ‣
everyone in the world would speak at different language
(1) Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis (MIH) •
(a) If speakers of two varieties of language A and B can understand each other ◦
when they talk, then A + B are varieties of a single language C
(b) If speakers of variety A and variety B cannot understand each other, then A ◦
+ B are not varieties of C, and are in fact, independent languages
Counter-Examples
‣
(1) Danish, Swedish and Norwegian: All officially recognized as •
separate languages so speakers shouldn't be able to understand each
other when they speak. BUT they can understand each other! Denmark
controlled Norway for 400 years, 19th century independence created
"Norwegian."
(2) Dutch/German: People on either side of the border between •
Norway/Germany classify themselves as speaking different languages
but they can understand each other
(3) Hindi/Urdu: Split between Hindi in India and Urdu in Pakistan •
after 20th century; speakers can understand all colloquial interactions
but there is a difference the script used for writing and formal
vocabulary (Hindi uses Sanskrit, Urdu uses Arabic)
(4) Chinese: Mandarin, Cantonese, Taiwanese, and Shanghainese are •
all considered variants of Chinese. However, they are not mutually
intelligible and people cannot understand each other. All considered
Chinese for political purposes (unifying the country). Writing "script" is
where the language holds itself together.
Max Weinrich: "A language is a dialect with an army and a navy."
Dialects: What is a dialect and how is it defined/perceived?
A dialect is a variety of a language which has certain differences in grammar, •
pronunciation, & vocabulary from the standard language to which it related
Often dialects are thought of as lower value in English (think African-American ◦
ebonics, rural Southern speak... etc.)
Patois: French term for a regional variant of a language which has never been ◦
used to write literature and hence has a lesser perceived value
Division of different forms of 'speech' and 'writing' into different languages is done •
on socio-political grounds for a variety of reasons/motivations
Examples
‣
(1) Serbo-Croat: One language used by two ethnic groups; small •
differences in vocabulary (think British vs. American English)... Written
in different scripts (Croatians - Roman script, Serbs - Cyrillic script) -->
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After the conflicts and the divide of Yugoslavia they are no longer
recognized as one language
(2) Hindi/Urdu •
(3) Danish/Swedish/Norwegian •
(4) Chinese •
How does a variety/dialect become 'promoted' to be a 'language'?
Selection: Must be seen as a more important variety than the others surrounding
1.
it --> might be promoted from one powerful political group or the expansion of a
group that uses a particular variety; once it grows large enough those not
speaking it are not placed at as high of level of prestige
Standardization 2.
Development of grammars and dictionaries of the chosen variety so that there A.
is a 'correct' form
Development of the written form B.
Development of literature in the language C.
Vocabulary expansion/adaptation - a.k.a must be able to be used in a D.
classroom, at home, or in government settings
Consequences of Standardization
Unifies those that speak the selected language and sets them apart from those who •
don't --> therefore, it can be used for political, social, or religious reasons
Can give speakers of the standard variety greater prestige •
Creates a "prototype" language norm after which people try to model their speech •
allowing the non-standard varieties to appear 'sub-standard' --> no variety can
have greater linguistic value than another
English: London ◦
French: Paris ◦
Japanese: Tokyo (Yamanote area) ◦
Korean: Seoul ◦
Positive Factors (Speakers do believe they are speaking a language)
Historicity: Variety might be important if it's speakers have a long attachment to it 1.
(could be ethnic, political, or religious)
Autonomy: A particular variety might be considered a language if it distinguishes
2.
its speakers from other people who speak other standard languages
Reduction and Mixture: If people think that their variety has a mother language, then
they might never distinguish it as separate (i.e. speakers of Caribbean English think
that is a sub-variety of English and may develop negative feelings towards it as a
result) --> Speakers of pidgins and creoles may really feel badly towards their
language if its a mixture of 2+ and may hesitate to consider them proper
independent languages
Division of varieties of speech into (standard) languages and dialects and done on •
the basis of socio-political terms
When one group becomes more powerful/dominant their language is accepted ◦
and often takes the role of the standard accepted languages, whereas other
local/regional varieties become 'just' dialects
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