PSYC200 Chapter Notes - Chapter 2: Phallic Stage, School Refusal, Anal Stage
School refusal behaviour - a reluctance or refusal to go to school or to remain there that is often accompanied by intense anxiety
and emotional distress for the child or adolescent
-
Issues of human development
-
Issue
Description
Nature and nurture
1.
To what extent is development primiary the product of genes, biology and maturation - or of
experience, learning and social influence?
Activity and passivity
2.
How much do humans do to actively shape their own environments and contribute to their own
development - or are they more passive and shaped by forces beyond their control?
Continuity and
discontinuity
3.
To what extend do humans change gradually and in quantitative ways - or progress through
qualitatively different stages and change dramatically into different beings?
Univerisitly and
context specificaity
4.
In what ways is development similar from person to person andfrom culture to culture, and in what
ways do pathways of development vary considerably depending on the social content?
Psychoanalytic Theories
2.
Freud
Psychoanalytic theory
The theortical perspective that emphasises the importance of unconscious motivations, emotional conflicts and early
experiences for shaping personality and behaviour
§
○
Instinct
An inborn biological force assumed to motivate behaviour
§
○
Unconscious motivation
The power of instincts and other inner forces, such as feelings and conflicts, which influences thinking and behaviour
without awareness
§
○
Id
The inborn component of the personality that is driven by impulsive, irrational and selfish urges
§
○
Ego
The rational component of personality seeks realistic manner
§
○
Superego
Personality that consists of individuals internalised moral standards
§
○
Libido
Psychic energy of the sex instinct
§
○
Psychosexual stages
5 stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital) of development associates with biological maturation and shifts in
the libido
§
○
Fixation
Defence mechianism in which development is arrested and part of the libido remains tied to an early stage of
development
§
○
Oedipus conplex
Psychic conflict that 3 - 6 years old boys experience when they develop desire for their mothers and jelous and
hostile with their fathers
§
○
Identification
Defence mechanism where the individual emulates or adopts the attitudes and behaviour of another person (same
sex parent)
§
○
Electra complex
Psychic conflict that 3 - 6 years girls experience when they envy their father possessing a penis, which desire in
sexual desire for father and rivalry mother
§
○
Defence mechanism
Used by ego ro defend itseld against anxiety caused by conflict between id impulses and social demands
§
○
-
Erikson
Less empasis on sexual
○
Less empasis on the unconsious, irrational and selfish id and more on the ego
○
Positive view of human nature
○
Emphaises on development after adolecence
○
Psychoscience stages
Erikson's eight stages of development which emphasises social over maturational influences as drivers of
development
§
○
-
The stage theories of Freud and Erikson (see later in the text) compared
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
Stage (age
range)
Description Stage (age range) Description
Oral stage
(birth to 1 year)
Libido is focused on the mouth as a source of
pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from a
mother figure is critical to later development.
Trust vs. mistrust
(birth to 1 year)
Infants must learn to trust their caregivers to meet
their needs. Responsive parenting is critical.
Anal stage (1 to
3 years)
Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet training
creates conflicts between the child’s biological
urges and the society’s demands.
Autonomy vs.
shame and doubt
(1 to 3 years)
Children must learn to be autonomous – to assert
their wills and do things for themselves – or they will
doubt their abilities.
Phallic stage (3
to 6 years)
Libido centres on the genitals. Resolution of the
Oedipus or the Electra complex results in
identification with the same-sex parent and
development of the superego.
Initiative vs. guilt
(3 to 6 years)
Preschoolers develop initiative by devising and
carrying out bold plans, but they must learn not to
impinge on the rights of others.
Latent period
(6 to 12 years)
Libido is quiet; psychic energy is invested in
schoolwork and play with same-sex friends.
Industry vs.
inferiority (6 to 12
years)
Children must master important social and academic
skills and keep up with their peers; otherwise, they
will feel inferior.
Genital stage
(12 years and
older)
Puberty reawakens the sexual instincts as youths
seek to establish mature sexual relationships and
pursue the biological goal of reproduction.
Identity vs. role
confusion (12 to
20 years)
Adolescents ask who they are and must establish
social and vocational identities; otherwise, they will
remain confused about the roles they should play as
adults.
Intimacy vs.
isolation (20 to 40
years)
Young adults seek to form a shared identity with
another person, but may fear intimacy and
experience loneliness and isolation.
Generativity vs.
stagnation (40 to
65 years)
Middle-aged adults must feel that they are producing
something that will outlive them, either as parents or
as workers; otherwise, they will become stagnant
and self-centred.
Integrity vs.
despair (65 years
and older)
Older adults must come to view their lives as
meaningful to face death without worries and
regrets.
Watson (1913)
Behaviourism
A perspecitve that argues the conclusions about human development should be based on controlled observations of
overt behaviour rather than on speculation about unconsious motives or other unobservable phenomena
§
○
-
Pavolva
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual come to elicit a response becaues
of its association with a stimulus that already elicit that response
§
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning
Food
®
□
§
Unconditioned response (UCR)
The unlearned response elicite by and unconditional response without prior learning
Salivation
®
□
§
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus that elicits a particular response after its paired with an unconditioned stimulus
that always elicits the response
Bell with arrival of food
®
□
§
Conditioned response (CR)
A learned response to a stimulus that was not orginially capable of producing the response
Salivation when hear bell
®
□
§
○
-
Skinner (1905-1990)
Operate conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviours (or operants) become more or less probable depending on the consquences
they produce
§
○
-
Bandura (1997-2006)
Social cognitive theory
Bandura social learning theory which emphsises the role of cognitive processing of social experiences for motivating
and self-regulating human behaviour
§
○
Observational learning
Learning that results from observing the behaviour of other people
§
○
Self-efficacy
The belief that one can effectively produce desired outcomes ina particular area of life
§
○
Reciprocoal determinism
The notion in social cognitibe theory that human development is shaped by the continuious interaction between the
person, the person;s behaviour and their environment
§
○
-
LEARNING
THEORIST
TYPE OF
LEARNING
WHAT IT INVOLVES WHAT IS LEARNED
John Watson
(1913)
Classical
conditioning
A stimulus comes to elicit a response through its
association with an unconditioned response
Emotion reactions
B.F Skinner Operant
condnitioning
Leaning involves reaction to the consequenses of one's
behaviour (reinforcement and punishment)
Skills; good and bad
Albert
Bandura
Observational
learning
Leaning involves watching a model and, though
vicarious reinforcement or punishment, the
consequences of the model's behaviour
Skills, cognitions, and behavioursincluding ones
that the learner has not been directly
reinforceing for displaying
Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) + Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Founders of humanistic psychology
Theoretical perspective that emphasises the innatte goodness of people and a tendency towards growth and self-
determination as motivating forces for cognition and behaviour
§
○
Self actualisation
Human need for reaching one's full potential
§
○
-
Maslow hierarchy of needs
Five levels of human needs that motivate thought and behaviour
Physiological needs - needs for survival 1.
Saftey needs - secure and stable 2.
Belonging and love needs - close relationships3.
Esteem needs - self-respect 4.
Self-actualisation - achieve ones talents 5.
○
-
Positive psychology
A branch of psychology concerned with understandnig what makes life worth living and how individuals and groups can
thrive and flouish
○
-
Evolutionary psychology
The application of evolutionary theory and its concept of natural selection to understanding why humans think and behave
the way they do
○
-
Cognitive theories
Piaget (1896-1980)
Cognitive development theory
Development that emphasises the role of experience and active exploration interacting with biological maturation as
the drivers for cognitive development
§
○
4 stages of cognitive development
○
-
Stage (age range) Description
Sensorimotor (birth - 2) Sense and motor actions to explore and understand world. Only innate reflexes
Preoperational ( 2 - 7) Symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play and solve problems. Not logical
thinking. Unable to take others perspective (egocentric). Easily fool by perception
Concrete operations
( 7-11)
Logical iperatons that allow to mentally classify, add and act on concrete objects in head. Solve
practical real world problems through trial and error
Formal operations
(11-12 and older)
Abstract concepts and purly hypothetical possiblities. From hypothesis and systematically test them
using scientific method
Vygotsky
Sociocultural theory
Vygotsky's theory of development that emphasises the role of the social and cultural context for cognitive
development
§
○
Soical constructivism
The position that humans actively create their own understandings of the world from their social interactions and
exposure to cultural tools such as language
§
○
-
Information processing
An approach to cognition the emphasises the fundamental mental processes invloved in attention, perception, memory
and decision making
○
-
Gottilbe
Eqigenetic psychobiological system perpective
Development is a product of interacting biological and environmental forces that form a larger, dynamic system,
both over course of evolution and someones life
§
○
-
PERSEPCTIVE,
THEORIST AND
THEORY
KEY MESSAGE NATURE-
NUTURE
ACTIVITY - PASSIVITY CONTNUITY -
DISCONTINUIT
Y
UNIVERSALITY -
CONTEXT SPECIFICITY
PSYCHOANALYTIC:
FRUEDS
PSYCHOSEXUL
THEORY
Bio based sexual instincts motive
behaviour and development
through 5 psychosexual stages
Nature
(biological)
Passive (humans are
infuences by forces
beyond control
Discontinuous
(stage like)
Universal
PSYCHOANALYTIC:
ERIKSON
PSYCHOSOCIAL
THEORY
Human development through 8
psychosocial conflicts
Equal Active Discontinuous
(stagelike)
Universal (although
different stages may be
expressed differne tin
each culture)
LEARNING: WATSON
AND SKINNERS
BEHAVIOURS
LEARNING THEORIES
Development is the product of
learning through associating tow
stimulus via classical
conditioning (Watson), or ones
consequences of ones behaviour
operant conditioning (Skinner)
Nurture Passive (humans
shaped by
environment)
Continuous
(response in
or decreases
in strenght)
Context specific
(direction of
development depends
on experiences)
LEARNING:
BANDURAS SOCIAL
COGNITIVE THEORY
Development is the product of
social cognition, as illustrated by
observational learning and
human agency
Nurture Active (human
influenced by
environment)
Continuous Context specific
HUMANISTIC:
MASLOQS
HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS
Humans develop through
process of stiving to meet
fundamental physiological and
psychological needs, from basic
to growth
Equal Active C Context
COGNITIVE: PAIGETS
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Development proceeds through
four stages of cognitive
development
Nuture Active C Context
Reading Chp 2
Sunday, 25 February 2018
7:02 PM
School refusal behaviour - a reluctance or refusal to go to school or to remain there that is often accompanied by intense anxiety
and emotional distress for the child or adolescent
-
Issues of human development
-
Issue
Description
Nature and nurture1.
To what extent is development primiary the product of genes, biology and maturation - or of
experience, learning and social influence?
Activity and passivity 2.
How much do humans do to actively shape their own environments and contribute to their own
development - or are they more passive and shaped by forces beyond their control?
Continuity and
discontinuity
3.
To what extend do humans change gradually and in quantitative ways - or progress through
qualitatively different stages and change dramatically into different beings?
Univerisitly and
context specificaity
4.
In what ways is development similar from person to person andfrom culture to culture, and in what
ways do pathways of development vary considerably depending on the social content?
Psychoanalytic Theories
2.
Freud
Psychoanalytic theory
The theortical perspective that emphasises the importance of unconscious motivations, emotional conflicts and early
experiences for shaping personality and behaviour
§
○
Instinct
An inborn biological force assumed to motivate behaviour
§
○
Unconscious motivation
The power of instincts and other inner forces, such as feelings and conflicts, which influences thinking and behaviour
without awareness
§
○
Id
The inborn component of the personality that is driven by impulsive, irrational and selfish urges
§
○
Ego
The rational component of personality seeks realistic manner
§
○
Superego
Personality that consists of individuals internalised moral standards
§
○
Libido
Psychic energy of the sex instinct
§
○
Psychosexual stages
5 stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital) of development associates with biological maturation and shifts in
the libido
§
○
Fixation
Defence mechianism in which development is arrested and part of the libido remains tied to an early stage of
development
§
○
Oedipus conplex
Psychic conflict that 3 - 6 years old boys experience when they develop desire for their mothers and jelous and
hostile with their fathers
§
○
Identification
Defence mechanism where the individual emulates or adopts the attitudes and behaviour of another person (same
sex parent)
§
○
Electra complex
Psychic conflict that 3 - 6 years girls experience when they envy their father possessing a penis, which desire in
sexual desire for father and rivalry mother
§
○
Defence mechanism
Used by ego ro defend itseld against anxiety caused by conflict between id impulses and social demands
§
○
-
Erikson
Less empasis on sexual
○
Less empasis on the unconsious, irrational and selfish id and more on the ego
○
Positive view of human nature
○
Emphaises on development after adolecence
○
Psychoscience stages
Erikson's eight stages of development which emphasises social over maturational influences as drivers of
development
§
○
-
The stage theories of Freud and Erikson (see later in the text) compared
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
Stage (age
range)
Description Stage (age range) Description
Oral stage
(birth to 1 year)
Libido is focused on the mouth as a source of
pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from a
mother figure is critical to later development.
Trust vs. mistrust
(birth to 1 year)
Infants must learn to trust their caregivers to meet
their needs. Responsive parenting is critical.
Anal stage (1 to
3 years)
Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet training
creates conflicts between the child’s biological
urges and the society’s demands.
Autonomy vs.
shame and doubt
(1 to 3 years)
Children must learn to be autonomous – to assert
their wills and do things for themselves – or they will
doubt their abilities.
Phallic stage (3
to 6 years)
Libido centres on the genitals. Resolution of the
Oedipus or the Electra complex results in
identification with the same-sex parent and
development of the superego.
Initiative vs. guilt
(3 to 6 years)
Preschoolers develop initiative by devising and
carrying out bold plans, but they must learn not to
impinge on the rights of others.
Latent period
(6 to 12 years)
Libido is quiet; psychic energy is invested in
schoolwork and play with same-sex friends.
Industry vs.
inferiority (6 to 12
years)
Children must master important social and academic
skills and keep up with their peers; otherwise, they
will feel inferior.
Genital stage
(12 years and
older)
Puberty reawakens the sexual instincts as youths
seek to establish mature sexual relationships and
pursue the biological goal of reproduction.
Identity vs. role
confusion (12 to
20 years)
Adolescents ask who they are and must establish
social and vocational identities; otherwise, they will
remain confused about the roles they should play as
adults.
Intimacy vs.
isolation (20 to 40
years)
Young adults seek to form a shared identity with
another person, but may fear intimacy and
experience loneliness and isolation.
Generativity vs.
stagnation (40 to
65 years)
Middle-aged adults must feel that they are producing
something that will outlive them, either as parents or
as workers; otherwise, they will become stagnant
and self-centred.
Integrity vs.
despair (65 years
and older)
Older adults must come to view their lives as
meaningful to face death without worries and
regrets.
Watson (1913)
Behaviourism
A perspecitve that argues the conclusions about human development should be based on controlled observations of
overt behaviour rather than on speculation about unconsious motives or other unobservable phenomena
§
○
-
Pavolva
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual come to elicit a response becaues
of its association with a stimulus that already elicit that response
§
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning
Food
®
□
§
Unconditioned response (UCR)
The unlearned response elicite by and unconditional response without prior learning
Salivation
®
□
§
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus that elicits a particular response after its paired with an unconditioned stimulus
that always elicits the response
Bell with arrival of food
®
□
§
Conditioned response (CR)
A learned response to a stimulus that was not orginially capable of producing the response
Salivation when hear bell
®
□
§
○
-
Skinner (1905-1990)
Operate conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviours (or operants) become more or less probable depending on the consquences
they produce
§
○
-
Bandura (1997-2006)
Social cognitive theory
Bandura social learning theory which emphsises the role of cognitive processing of social experiences for motivating
and self-regulating human behaviour
§
○
Observational learning
Learning that results from observing the behaviour of other people
§
○
Self-efficacy
The belief that one can effectively produce desired outcomes ina particular area of life
§
○
Reciprocoal determinism
The notion in social cognitibe theory that human development is shaped by the continuious interaction between the
person, the person;s behaviour and their environment
§
○
-
LEARNING
THEORIST
TYPE OF
LEARNING
WHAT IT INVOLVES WHAT IS LEARNED
John Watson
(1913)
Classical
conditioning
A stimulus comes to elicit a response through its
association with an unconditioned response
Emotion reactions
B.F Skinner Operant
condnitioning
Leaning involves reaction to the consequenses of one's
behaviour (reinforcement and punishment)
Skills; good and bad
Albert
Bandura
Observational
learning
Leaning involves watching a model and, though
vicarious reinforcement or punishment, the
consequences of the model's behaviour
Skills, cognitions, and behavioursincluding ones
that the learner has not been directly
reinforceing for displaying
Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) + Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Founders of humanistic psychology
Theoretical perspective that emphasises the innatte goodness of people and a tendency towards growth and self-
determination as motivating forces for cognition and behaviour
§
○
Self actualisation
Human need for reaching one's full potential
§
○
-
Maslow hierarchy of needs
Five levels of human needs that motivate thought and behaviour
Physiological needs - needs for survival 1.
Saftey needs - secure and stable 2.
Belonging and love needs - close relationships3.
Esteem needs - self-respect 4.
Self-actualisation - achieve ones talents 5.
○
-
Positive psychology
A branch of psychology concerned with understandnig what makes life worth living and how individuals and groups can
thrive and flouish
○
-
Evolutionary psychology
The application of evolutionary theory and its concept of natural selection to understanding why humans think and behave
the way they do
○
-
Cognitive theories
Piaget (1896-1980)
Cognitive development theory
Development that emphasises the role of experience and active exploration interacting with biological maturation as
the drivers for cognitive development
§
○
4 stages of cognitive development
○
-
Stage (age range) Description
Sensorimotor (birth - 2) Sense and motor actions to explore and understand world. Only innate reflexes
Preoperational ( 2 - 7) Symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play and solve problems. Not logical
thinking. Unable to take others perspective (egocentric). Easily fool by perception
Concrete operations
( 7-11)
Logical iperatons that allow to mentally classify, add and act on concrete objects in head. Solve
practical real world problems through trial and error
Formal operations
(11-12 and older)
Abstract concepts and purly hypothetical possiblities. From hypothesis and systematically test them
using scientific method
Vygotsky
Sociocultural theory
Vygotsky's theory of development that emphasises the role of the social and cultural context for cognitive
development
§
○
Soical constructivism
The position that humans actively create their own understandings of the world from their social interactions and
exposure to cultural tools such as language
§
○
-
Information processing
An approach to cognition the emphasises the fundamental mental processes invloved in attention, perception, memory
and decision making
○
-
Gottilbe
Eqigenetic psychobiological system perpective
Development is a product of interacting biological and environmental forces that form a larger, dynamic system,
both over course of evolution and someones life
§
○
-
PERSEPCTIVE,
THEORIST AND
THEORY
KEY MESSAGE NATURE-
NUTURE
ACTIVITY - PASSIVITY CONTNUITY -
DISCONTINUIT
Y
UNIVERSALITY -
CONTEXT SPECIFICITY
PSYCHOANALYTIC:
FRUEDS
PSYCHOSEXUL
THEORY
Bio based sexual instincts motive
behaviour and development
through 5 psychosexual stages
Nature
(biological)
Passive (humans are
infuences by forces
beyond control
Discontinuous
(stage like)
Universal
PSYCHOANALYTIC:
ERIKSON
PSYCHOSOCIAL
THEORY
Human development through 8
psychosocial conflicts
Equal Active Discontinuous
(stagelike)
Universal (although
different stages may be
expressed differne tin
each culture)
LEARNING: WATSON
AND SKINNERS
BEHAVIOURS
LEARNING THEORIES
Development is the product of
learning through associating tow
stimulus via classical
conditioning (Watson), or ones
consequences of ones behaviour
operant conditioning (Skinner)
Nurture Passive (humans
shaped by
environment)
Continuous
(response in
or decreases
in strenght)
Context specific
(direction of
development depends
on experiences)
LEARNING:
BANDURAS SOCIAL
COGNITIVE THEORY
Development is the product of
social cognition, as illustrated by
observational learning and
human agency
Nurture Active (human
influenced by
environment)
Continuous Context specific
HUMANISTIC:
MASLOQS
HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS
Humans develop through
process of stiving to meet
fundamental physiological and
psychological needs, from basic
to growth
Equal Active C Context
COGNITIVE: PAIGETS
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Development proceeds through
four stages of cognitive
development
Nuture Active C Context
Reading Chp 2
Sunday, 25 February 2018
7:02 PM
School refusal behaviour - a reluctance or refusal to go to school or to remain there that is often accompanied by intense anxiety
and emotional distress for the child or adolescent
-
Issues of human development
-
Issue Description
Nature and nurture1. To what extent is development primiary the product of genes, biology and maturation - or of
experience, learning and social influence?
Activity and passivity 2. How much do humans do to actively shape their own environments and contribute to their own
development - or are they more passive and shaped by forces beyond their control?
Continuity and
discontinuity
3. To what extend do humans change gradually and in quantitative ways - or progress through
qualitatively different stages and change dramatically into different beings?
Univerisitly and
context specificaity
4. In what ways is development similar from person to person andfrom culture to culture, and in what
ways do pathways of development vary considerably depending on the social content?
Psychoanalytic Theories 2.
Freud
Psychoanalytic theory
The theortical perspective that emphasises the importance of unconscious motivations, emotional conflicts and early
experiences for shaping personality and behaviour
§
○
Instinct
An inborn biological force assumed to motivate behaviour
§
○
Unconscious motivation
The power of instincts and other inner forces, such as feelings and conflicts, which influences thinking and behaviour
without awareness
§
○
Id
The inborn component of the personality that is driven by impulsive, irrational and selfish urges
§
○
Ego
The rational component of personality seeks realistic manner
§
○
Superego
Personality that consists of individuals internalised moral standards
§
○
Libido
Psychic energy of the sex instinct
§
○
Psychosexual stages
5 stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital) of development associates with biological maturation and shifts in
the libido
§
○
Fixation
Defence mechianism in which development is arrested and part of the libido remains tied to an early stage of
development
§
○
Oedipus conplex
Psychic conflict that 3 - 6 years old boys experience when they develop desire for their mothers and jelous and
hostile with their fathers
§
○
Identification
Defence mechanism where the individual emulates or adopts the attitudes and behaviour of another person (same
sex parent)
§
○
Electra complex
Psychic conflict that 3 - 6 years girls experience when they envy their father possessing a penis, which desire in
sexual desire for father and rivalry mother
§
○
Defence mechanism
Used by ego ro defend itseld against anxiety caused by conflict between id impulses and social demands
§
○
-
Erikson
Less empasis on sexual
○
Less empasis on the unconsious, irrational and selfish id and more on the ego
○
Positive view of human nature
○
Emphaises on development after adolecence
○
Psychoscience stages
Erikson's eight stages of development which emphasises social over maturational influences as drivers of
development
§
○
-
The stage theories of Freud and Erikson (see later in the text) compared
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
Stage (age
range)
Description
Stage (age range)
Description
Oral stage
(birth to 1 year)
Libido is focused on the mouth as a source of
pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from a
mother figure is critical to later development.
Trust vs. mistrust
(birth to 1 year)
Infants must learn to trust their caregivers to meet
their needs. Responsive parenting is critical.
Anal stage (1 to
3 years)
Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet training
creates conflicts between the child’s biological
urges and the society’s demands.
Autonomy vs.
shame and doubt
(1 to 3 years)
Children must learn to be autonomous – to assert
their wills and do things for themselves – or they will
doubt their abilities.
Phallic stage (3
to 6 years)
Libido centres on the genitals. Resolution of the
Oedipus or the Electra complex results in
identification with the same-sex parent and
development of the superego.
Initiative vs. guilt
(3 to 6 years)
Preschoolers develop initiative by devising and
carrying out bold plans, but they must learn not to
impinge on the rights of others.
Latent period
(6 to 12 years)
Libido is quiet; psychic energy is invested in
schoolwork and play with same-sex friends.
Industry vs.
inferiority (6 to 12
years)
Children must master important social and academic
skills and keep up with their peers; otherwise, they
will feel inferior.
Genital stage
(12 years and
older)
Puberty reawakens the sexual instincts as youths
seek to establish mature sexual relationships and
pursue the biological goal of reproduction.
Identity vs. role
confusion (12 to
20 years)
Adolescents ask who they are and must establish
social and vocational identities; otherwise, they will
remain confused about the roles they should play as
adults.
Intimacy vs.
isolation (20 to 40
years)
Young adults seek to form a shared identity with
another person, but may fear intimacy and
experience loneliness and isolation.
Generativity vs.
stagnation (40 to
65 years)
Middle-aged adults must feel that they are producing
something that will outlive them, either as parents or
as workers; otherwise, they will become stagnant
and self-centred.
Integrity vs.
despair (65 years
and older)
Older adults must come to view their lives as
meaningful to face death without worries and
regrets.
Watson (1913)
Behaviourism
A perspecitve that argues the conclusions about human development should be based on controlled observations of
overt behaviour rather than on speculation about unconsious motives or other unobservable phenomena
§
○
-
Pavolva
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual come to elicit a response becaues
of its association with a stimulus that already elicit that response
§
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning
Food
®
□
§
Unconditioned response (UCR)
The unlearned response elicite by and unconditional response without prior learning
Salivation
®
□
§
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus that elicits a particular response after its paired with an unconditioned stimulus
that always elicits the response
Bell with arrival of food
®
□
§
Conditioned response (CR)
A learned response to a stimulus that was not orginially capable of producing the response
Salivation when hear bell
®
□
§
○
-
Skinner (1905-1990)
Operate conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviours (or operants) become more or less probable depending on the consquences
they produce
§
○
-
Bandura (1997-2006)
Social cognitive theory
Bandura social learning theory which emphsises the role of cognitive processing of social experiences for motivating
and self-regulating human behaviour
§
○
Observational learning
Learning that results from observing the behaviour of other people
§
○
Self-efficacy
The belief that one can effectively produce desired outcomes ina particular area of life
§
○
Reciprocoal determinism
The notion in social cognitibe theory that human development is shaped by the continuious interaction between the
person, the person;s behaviour and their environment
§
○
-
LEARNING
THEORIST
TYPE OF
LEARNING
WHAT IT INVOLVES WHAT IS LEARNED
John Watson
(1913)
Classical
conditioning
A stimulus comes to elicit a response through its
association with an unconditioned response
Emotion reactions
B.F Skinner Operant
condnitioning
Leaning involves reaction to the consequenses of one's
behaviour (reinforcement and punishment)
Skills; good and bad
Albert
Bandura
Observational
learning
Leaning involves watching a model and, though
vicarious reinforcement or punishment, the
consequences of the model's behaviour
Skills, cognitions, and behavioursincluding ones
that the learner has not been directly
reinforceing for displaying
Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) + Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Founders of humanistic psychology
Theoretical perspective that emphasises the innatte goodness of people and a tendency towards growth and self-
determination as motivating forces for cognition and behaviour
§
○
Self actualisation
Human need for reaching one's full potential
§
○
-
Maslow hierarchy of needs
Five levels of human needs that motivate thought and behaviour
Physiological needs - needs for survival 1.
Saftey needs - secure and stable 2.
Belonging and love needs - close relationships3.
Esteem needs - self-respect 4.
Self-actualisation - achieve ones talents 5.
○
-
Positive psychology
A branch of psychology concerned with understandnig what makes life worth living and how individuals and groups can
thrive and flouish
○
-
Evolutionary psychology
The application of evolutionary theory and its concept of natural selection to understanding why humans think and behave
the way they do
○
-
Cognitive theories
Piaget (1896-1980)
Cognitive development theory
Development that emphasises the role of experience and active exploration interacting with biological maturation as
the drivers for cognitive development
§
○
4 stages of cognitive development
○
-
Stage (age range) Description
Sensorimotor (birth - 2) Sense and motor actions to explore and understand world. Only innate reflexes
Preoperational ( 2 - 7) Symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play and solve problems. Not logical
thinking. Unable to take others perspective (egocentric). Easily fool by perception
Concrete operations
( 7-11)
Logical iperatons that allow to mentally classify, add and act on concrete objects in head. Solve
practical real world problems through trial and error
Formal operations
(11-12 and older)
Abstract concepts and purly hypothetical possiblities. From hypothesis and systematically test them
using scientific method
Vygotsky
Sociocultural theory
Vygotsky's theory of development that emphasises the role of the social and cultural context for cognitive
development
§
○
Soical constructivism
The position that humans actively create their own understandings of the world from their social interactions and
exposure to cultural tools such as language
§
○
-
Information processing
An approach to cognition the emphasises the fundamental mental processes invloved in attention, perception, memory
and decision making
○
-
Gottilbe
Eqigenetic psychobiological system perpective
Development is a product of interacting biological and environmental forces that form a larger, dynamic system,
both over course of evolution and someones life
§
○
-
PERSEPCTIVE,
THEORIST AND
THEORY
KEY MESSAGE NATURE-
NUTURE
ACTIVITY - PASSIVITY CONTNUITY -
DISCONTINUIT
Y
UNIVERSALITY -
CONTEXT SPECIFICITY
PSYCHOANALYTIC:
FRUEDS
PSYCHOSEXUL
THEORY
Bio based sexual instincts motive
behaviour and development
through 5 psychosexual stages
Nature
(biological)
Passive (humans are
infuences by forces
beyond control
Discontinuous
(stage like)
Universal
PSYCHOANALYTIC:
ERIKSON
PSYCHOSOCIAL
THEORY
Human development through 8
psychosocial conflicts
Equal Active Discontinuous
(stagelike)
Universal (although
different stages may be
expressed differne tin
each culture)
LEARNING: WATSON
AND SKINNERS
BEHAVIOURS
LEARNING THEORIES
Development is the product of
learning through associating tow
stimulus via classical
conditioning (Watson), or ones
consequences of ones behaviour
operant conditioning (Skinner)
Nurture Passive (humans
shaped by
environment)
Continuous
(response in
or decreases
in strenght)
Context specific
(direction of
development depends
on experiences)
LEARNING:
BANDURAS SOCIAL
COGNITIVE THEORY
Development is the product of
social cognition, as illustrated by
observational learning and
human agency
Nurture Active (human
influenced by
environment)
Continuous Context specific
HUMANISTIC:
MASLOQS
HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS
Humans develop through
process of stiving to meet
fundamental physiological and
psychological needs, from basic
to growth
Equal Active C Context
COGNITIVE: PAIGETS
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Development proceeds through
four stages of cognitive
development
Nuture Active C Context
Reading Chp 2
Sunday, 25 February 2018 7:02 PM
Document Summary
School refusal behaviour - a reluctance or refusal to go to school or to remain there th and emotional distress for the child or adolescent. How much do humans do to actively shape their own enviro development - or are they more passive and shaped by forc. To what extend do humans change gradually and in quantitati qualitatively different stages and change dramatically into d. In what ways is development similar from person to person ways do pathways of development vary considerably depen. The theortical perspective that emphasises the importance of unconscious experiences for shaping personality and behaviour. An inborn biological force assumed to motivate behaviour. The power of instincts and other inner forces, such as feelings and conflicts without awareness. The inborn component of the personality that is driven by impulsive, irrati. The rational component of personality seeks realistic manner. Personality that consists of individuals internalised moral standards.
