PSY1011 Chapter Notes - Chapter 2: Hindsight Bias, Operational Definition, Random Assignment
4 May 2018
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Methods in Psychology
1. Intuition is an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with
explicit, conscious reasoning. However, we cannot simply rely on intuition and common
sense because of three phenomena:
• Hindsight bias, the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one
would have foreseen it (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)
• Overconfidence, the human tendency to think we know more than we do
• Our tendency to perceive order in random events
2. A theory is an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations
and predicts behaviors or events.
3. A hypothesis is a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
• By testing their hypotheses, researchers can confirm, reject, or revise their
theories.
4. Replication involves repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different
participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.
• An operational definition is a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures
(operations) used in a research study. It allows other researchers to replicate a
study more precisely.
o For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what
an intelligence test measures.
• If others achieve similar results, confidence in the conclusion will be greater.
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5. Descriptive methods show us what can happen, and they may offer ideas for further study.
Descriptive methods cannot show cause and effect because researchers cannot control
variables. The following methods are descriptive:
• A case study is a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied
in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
• Naturalistic observation is a descriptive technique of observing and recording
behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and
control the situation.
• A survey is a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or
behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random
sample of the group.
6. A random sample is a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has
an equal chance of inclusion.
• A population is a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.
o (Note: Ecept for national studies, this does not refer to a countr’s
whole population.)
7. Correlation is a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how
well either factor predicts the other.
• A scatterplot is a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of
two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship
between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the
correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).
• A correlation coefficient is a statistical index of the relationship between two
things (ranging from –1.00 to +1.00).
o In a positive correlation, two factors increase or decrease together.
o In a negative correlation, one item increases as the other decreases.
• Correlation does not equal causation. For example, if researchers find correlation
between depression and low self-esteem, then:
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Document Summary
Methods in psychology: intuition is an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. It allows other researchers to replicate a study more precisely: for example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. If others achieve similar results, confidence in the conclusion will be greater: descriptive methods show us what can happen, and they may offer ideas for further study. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation): a correlation coefficient is a statistical index of the relationship between two things (ranging from 1. 00 to +1. 00). In a positive correlation, two factors increase or decrease together. In a negative correlation, one item increases as the other decreases: correlation does not equal causation.
