PSYC1102 Chapter Notes - Chapter All: Social Loafing, Language Development, Biofeedback
CHAPTER TWO – STUDYING BEHAVIOR SCIENTIFICALLY
Scientific method
1. Identify
2. Hypothesize
3. Test
4. Analyze
5. Build knowledge
Hindsight (try to understand behavior)
- After-the-fact understanding
- I ke that all alog
Self reports
- Distorted by social desirability bias
➢ responding in socially acceptable manner rather than how one truly feels
Overt behavior = Directly observable
Unobstrusive behavior = Record behavior w/o participants knowing
Archival measures = Records that alr exist
NHMRC = National Health & Medical Research Council
Descriptive research
- Seeks to identify how humans and other animals behave
- Esp in natural settings
Case study
- Able to study it closely
- May challenge validity of theory
- New ideas + subsequently examined using other research methods
- Usually not generalizable
Naturalistic Observation
- Natural setting, No interference
Representative sample
- Reflects impt characteristics of population
Random sampling
- Every member of pop has equal probability of being chosen to participate in survey
Correlational research
- measures, measures
- NOT causation
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Internal validity
- Degree to which experiment supports clear causal conclusions
Nocebo = opp of placebo
External validity
- Degree to which results of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings
& conditions
Meta analysis
- Statistical procedure for combining results of diff studies that examine same topic
CHAPTER NINE – LANGUAGE AND THINKING
Grammar
- Set of rules that dictates how symbols can be combined to create meaningful units
of communication
Syntax
- Rules that govern order of words
Semantics
- Meaning of words and sentences (+tense)
Generativity
- Symbols of language can be combined to generate infinite no. of messages that have
novel meaning
Displacement
- The fact that language allows us to communication about events and objects that
are not physically present
Phonemes > Morphemes > Words > Phrases > Sentence > Discourse
Phoneme
- Smallest unit of speech sound in a language that can signal a diff in meaning
Morpheme
- Smallest units of meaning in a language
Discourse
- Sentences are combined into paragraphs, articles, books, convos and so forth
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Bottom-up processing
- Individual elements of a stimulus are analyzed & then combined to form a unified
perception
- Inductive reasoning
Top-down processing
- Sensory info interpreted in light of existing knowledge, concepts, ideas &
expectations
- Deductive reasoning
➢ Considered to be more valid than inductive reasoning as if the premises are true,
the conclusion cannot be false
➢ When we reason from general principles to a conclusion about a specific case
Pragmatics
- A knowledge of the practical aspects of using a language
Surface structure
- Consists of symbols that are used and order
Deep structure
- Underlying meaning of combined symbols
Aphasia
- An impairment in speech comprehension & or production
Phonological Awareness
- Oeall aaeess of the soud stutue of oes laguage
Belief bias
- Tendency to abandon logical rules in favor of our own personal beliefs
Algorithms
- Formulas / precise sequences of procedures that automatically generate solutions
Heuristics
- General problem solving strategies that we apply to certain classes of situations
- Means-end analysis
➢ involves identifying diff between present situation and a desired goal and then
making changes that reduce these differences
- Sub-goal analysis
➢ Formulating sub-goals or intermediate steps toward a solution
- Representativeness heuristic
➢ We think about how closely smtg fits our prototype of that particular concept
➢ Prototype: typical and familiar members of a particular class
- Availability heuristic
➢ In which people make judgments and decisions on how easily info is available in
memory
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Document Summary
Scientific method: identify, hypothesize, test, analyze, build knowledge. After-the-fact understanding (cid:858)i k(cid:374)e(cid:449) that all alo(cid:374)g(cid:859) Responding in socially acceptable manner rather than how one truly feels. Unobstrusive behavior = record behavior w/o participants knowing. Nhmrc = national health & medical research council. Seeks to identify how humans and other animals behave. New ideas + subsequently examined using other research methods. Every member of pop has equal probability of being chosen to participate in survey. Degree to which experiment supports clear causal conclusions. Degree to which results of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings. Statistical procedure for combining results of diff studies that examine same topic. Set of rules that dictates how symbols can be combined to create meaningful units of communication. Symbols of language can be combined to generate infinite no. of messages that have novel meaning. The fact that language allows us to communication about events and objects that are not physically present.
