PSYC200 Lecture 8: Week 8
Overview
Gender identity development over:
• Infancy
• Childhood
• Adolescence
•
Theories of gender development (different theoretical frameworks explaining
the development of gender roles and behaviours)
•
Gender Dysphoria
•
Key stages of sexuality over the lifespan
Key Terminology
•
Sex: biological categories of male and female
•
Gender: socially constructed categories of feminine and masculine
•
Gender roles: societal expectations of behaviours exhibited by males and
females
•
These are defined by the range of behaviours that are expected of a
particular gender group
•
Gender typing: the process by which children acquire a set of behaviours that
are consistent
with the gender roles specific to their culture
•
Gender stereotyping: generalised mental representations that differentiate
gender groups
•
In Western societies, males are stereotypically viewed as aggressive,
independent and confident;
Females are typically viewed as emotionally expressive, nurturing & gentle
•
The social behaviours of boys and girls in Western societies differ from an
early age: boys exhibit
higher levels of physical aggression, dominance in groups and rough-and-
tumble play vs. girls show greater verbal and relational aggression and more
supportive social communication
Gender Identity: Infancy & childhood
Newborns are soon labelled as boys or girls
○
Infants are often labelled before they are born, due to ability to find
out the gender of a fetus as
early as 10 weeks gestation via a newly developed non-invasive blood
test
○
•
• Differential treatment
Girl and boy infants elicit different responses, based on perceived gender.
Boys are more often
given blue/masculine toys and girls given pink/feminine toys, but the
differences go beyond that. Research indicates that infant girls are treated as
more delicate than boys and boys get more attention for gross motor
behaviour (e.g., moving arms and legs). On average, mothers verbalize more
to female infants.
•
In the 1970s, fathers were typically more extreme than mothers in
differentiating infants based on gender. A classic study showed that both
mothers and fathers tended to rate newborn girls as finer featured, less
strong, more delicate and more feminine than newborn boys. Research
indicates that gender stereotyping has decreased since the 1970s, however is
still present. Similar findings have been revealed in studies where non-parent
adults are told the gender of the baby is a boy or girl, however the gender of
the infant (e.g., female) is actually kept consistent across participants, rather
than varied. This indicates that it is not actual differences between genders
that are driving these perceived differences by adults.
•
3-4 months: distinguish male and female faces •
12 months: distinguish male and female voices •
2 years: identity self as boy or girl •
3 years: gender typing, preference in playmates •
1
Gender typing is when a child becomes aware of their gender and thus
behaves in line with this, by adopting values and attributes of members of
their own sex.
•
Preference for same-sex play mates develops around 2-3 years, but is clearly
evident by 3 years.
•
At 3 years, children are more interactive and sociable when playing with
same-sex friends. When
they are with the opposite sex, they tend to watch or play alongside the
other child rather than interact directly. Preschool children spend very little
time playing one-on-one with the opposite sex. They spend some time in
mixed-sex groups but spend most of their time, by far, playing with same-sex
peers.
•
It seems this gender preference in playmates is at least partially linked to
socialization processes, but children may also gravitate toward peers with
similar play styles. Girls generally engage in more nurturing-and-mothering-
type behaviours, while boys show greater instances of rough- and-tumble
play. For much of human history, people lived in small hunter-gatherer
societies. Over time evolutionary forces may have selected for children’s play
activities related to adult survival skills.
•
6+: gender segregation •
By 6 years, gender segregation is so prevalent that if you watch 6-year-olds in
a playground, you
typically will see only one girl-boy group for every 11 boy-boy or girl-girl
groups.
Video on gender segregation
Video duration 1:58 – Jimmy Kimmel asks children what it means to be a boy
or a girl
Gender Identity: Adolescence
•
Gender intensification: a magnification of differences between males &
females associated
with increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles
•
Social pressures on adolescents to conform to traditional roles may help
explain why sex
differences in cognitive abilities sometimes become more noticeable as
children enter
adolescence
•
Pressure to conform to gender stereotypes does not need to be real
adolescents’
perceptions of their peers’ thoughts and expectations can affect behaviours
& lead to gender intensification
Biological & evolutionary theories of gender
Evolutionary psychology: gender roles are genetically blueprinted
○
Evolutionary psychologists view gender roles and gender-typed behave
as the result of
genetically based blueprints that have evolved over millions of years in
response to
environmental demands and natural selection
○
Evolutionary theories say modern gender roles have their roots in
prehistoric male-female role differences
○
Because of their physical attributes, women are the child-bearers and
principal care-givers, while men are the hunters and providers for the
family.
○
Males with more stereotypically male attributes, such as forcefulness
and competitiveness, would have been successful hunters and
providers for the family.
○
Through natural selection, women would have been more likely to
choose them as the fathers of their offspring, making them more
attractive partners.
○
So in evolutionary theory, the traits contributing to gender roles were
naturally selected over millions of years and it’s argued that these roles
are still played out by modern males and females, despite the reality
that modern technology makes some of the traditional aspects of
gender roles largely interchangeable.
○
Biological theories of gender-role dev attribute behavioural differences
in gender roles for boys and girls to hormonal influences.
○
•
2
Male and female hormones produce marked physiological differences and
may profoundly affect sex-typed behaviour.
•
Studies of children exposed to unusual levels of sex hormones provide key
evidence for this, e.g., Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) causes
abnormally high levels of male hormones (androgens) in young children who
are biologically female, but who may have male-looking genitals. Surgery is
sometimes used to correct the anomaly and these children are generally
raised as females. But studies have shown that CAH females show a greater
interest in boys’ gendered activities such as rough-and-tumble play and often
dislike girls’ toys and gender activities more than non-CAH female siblings do.
This suggests sex hormones influence gender identity and gender-typed
behaviour.
•
Biological theories of gender-role development give evidence of the
underlying scaffolding of gender-typed behaviours, but they do not
completely account for gender-role development, e.g., in isolation, sex
hormones are unlikely to inspire the diversity observed in children’s gender-
typed behaviour. The social environment also needs to be considered.
Learning theories of gender
•
Gender roles and gender-type behaviours are learnt from interactions
between the individual and the environment.
•
Unlike the biological factors related to gender-role development, the social-
environmental factors that may influence gender-role dev are not universal.
This is because social environments across the world vary, and gender-based
behave and values that are the norm in one culture may not be prevalent in
another/
•
One prominent theory is: •
Bussey and Bandura’s theory maintains gender roles and behaviours are
learnt through
reinforcement of gender-appropriate behaviours, modelling and children’s
self-regulation of
behaviours
•
Parents exert strong influence over child’s environment (i.e., dressing boys
and girls differently
and buying sex-typed toys)
•
E.g., girls praised for dancing and dressing up and boys for running and
jumping
•
Research indicates parents are more likely to reward sons for being assertive,
independent,
physically active and emotionally inexpressive and daughters for being
emotionally expressive,
accommodating, dependent and physically passive.
•
Boys are discouraged more strongly than girls for participating in cross-
gender play (more
acceptable for a girl to play with a truck than a boy to play with a doll).
•
Gender-appropriate behaviour is also reinforced by other children, e.g., other
same-sex children
more likely to imitate behaviours if gender-appropriate and ridicule if not
(from age 3).
•
Parents, siblings and peers may provide strong models for gender roles and
gender-typed
behaviours.
•
Wider society also plays a role in models, via television, video games,
magazines, children’s
books, social media etc.
•
Limitations of theory •
There is evidence for the effects of both reinforcement and modelling in the
development of
gender-typed behaviours, however the social-learning approach to gender
development is limited by its portrayal of children as passive recipients of
gender-role influences. It does not take the child’s own understanding of
gender and the different developmental stages children pass through into
consideration. It also does not consider the role social, cognitive, social and
emotional maturation might play in acquiring gender roles. Cognitive theories
address some of these concerns.
Learning theories of gender
•
3
Video (duration 1:58) Gender neutral parenting (Video shows UK family who are
raising their child as gender neutral)
Video (duration 7:25) Gender neutral parenting (Based in Toronto, debates issues
associated with gender neutral parenting)
Cognitive theories of gender
Children are active processors and seekers of gender-based information,
rather than passive
recipients of gender-role influences (as they are in social learning approach)
•
Cognitive theorists argue children construct their gender roles by watching
and selecting from their environment, rather than merely absorbing
information so children self-socialise into
their gender role, to a large extent, by seeking information relevant to their
own traditional
gender role and practicing relevant behaviour
•
Kohlberg’s (1966) 3-stage cognitive-developmental theory of gender-role
development
Gender labelling (2.5-3 years)
○
Based on appearance
○
May incorrectly classify people and do not recognise that gender is a
permanent
characteristic (e.g., that a boy can grow up to be a woman)
○
Gender stability (3.5-4.5 years)
○
Become aware of the permanency of gender, but, like children at the
preoperational
stage of cognitive development, may be misled by appearances (e.g., if
a person looks like a boy on the outside, i.e., short hair, wearing boy-
type clothes, then they must be a boy)
○
Gender constancy (4.5-7 years)
○
Children are no longer misled by appearances see gender as
consistent across time
and context
○
This stage is similar to Piaget’s stage of concrete operations, where a
child can conserve.
According to Kohlberg, children must achieve this kind of conservation
before gender- typed behaviour can develop. But research shows
children develop gendered behaviours long before gender becomes a
stable concept. So it appears that gender conservation is not
responsible for the acquisition of gender-typed behaviours/roles as
Kohlberg believed.
Gender Schema Theory
○
This theory closely follows Kohlberg’s ideas, but does not claim that
gender constancy is necessary for gender-role internalization.
○
Theory comes from information processing models, cognitive theories,
Kohlberg’s theory & self-concept theories
○
Gender schema = an organized set of gender-related beliefs that
influence behaviour
○
The gender schema begins to develop as the child:
Notices the differences between boys and girls
§
Learn sex-based associations, e.g., boys play with cars and girls
play with dolls
§
Knows own gender
§
Labels the two groups with some consistency
§
○
Information that does not fit the gender schemas tends to be either
forgotten or distorted to fit the schema
○
Limitation of cognitive theories: minimize the influence of the social
environment and culture
○
Overall, an approach that incorporates information from all of the
aforementioned theories will provide the best account of gender role
development
○
•
4
Reasons for gender segregation
Earlier in the lecture we discussed how gender segregation is highly prevalent
by 6 years of age. Why might this occur?
•
Here are the most prominent theories: •
Play compatibility: Some researchers believe that gender segregation occurs
because children
seek partners whose play styles match or complement their own. With
toddlers and young children, the first to segregate tend to be the most active
and disruptive boys and the most socially sensitive girls. Both types of
children prefer to play with others like them.
•
Cognitive schemas: Children develop concepts or ideas (schemas) about what
boys and girls are typically like. These concepts include stereotyped, and
often exaggerated, notions about gender differences. Examples: "Boys are
rough and like to fight and play with trucks" and "Girls are nice and like to talk
and play with dolls." Children use these cognitive schemas as filters when
they judge themselves and observe other children. "I am a boy, so I like to
play with trucks" is a concept that may lead boys to seek each other as
playmates. Schemas can also cause children to filter out or misremember
instances that contradict the schema. E.g., children discount the number of
times they've seen girls play ball and boys play with dolls. As children learn
gender- based schemas, their play and playmate preferences become more
segregated.
•
Operant conditioning: Reward and punishment also contribute to gender
segregation. Boys in particular—like the new boy in preschool who sat
"where the girls sit"—tend to incur harsh criticism when they cross gender
lines to play with girls. For most boys, being called a "sissy" is a major insult.
Although some girls revel in being "tomboys," others can feel conflicted
about being associated with stereotypically masculine activities. Whether
consciously or only inadvertently, parents, teachers, peers, the media, and
others contribute to gender segregation by reinforcing or rewarding sex-
typed behaviours in boys and girls and by punishing behaviour that does not
conform to stereotypes.
•
Psychoanalytic theory: One of the oldest views on gender segregation was
the theory formulated by Freud. Although Freud's view isn't given much
credence today, he offered the explanation that gender segregation occurs as
children repress their sexual feelings during the latency stage of
development. That is, children avoid interactions with the opposite sex to
avoid the guilty feelings they associate with sexuality. During this stage,
children channel their energies into less threatening pursuits such as
collecting trading cards or dolls. When they play with opposite-sex friends,
children often get teased about being "in love" or "going with" their friend.
Effects of gender segregation
Boys and girls grow up in different gender cultures, with different
influences
○
Regardless of why gender segregation occurs, one of its consequences
is that boys and girls grow
up in different gender cultures—different spheres of social influence
that are based on the
differences between male and female groups and affiliations.
○
Different types of play promote development of different skills
○
Rough-and-tumble play, chase, keep-away games, superhero warrior
games, and competitive
sports are more common activities among boys. Physical aggression,
independence, and dominance are common themes in boys' play. Girls'
play, however, tends to emphasize social closeness and sensitivity. Doll
play and playing house, for example, involve role- playing, turn taking,
nurturance, and affection.
○
Friendship group size differs for boys vs. girls
○
Another difference is that boys tend to play in larger groups; girls
develop closer ties in smaller
groups. As a consequence, girls may learn to share thoughts and
feelings and practice being good listeners in intimate friendships, while
boys see intimate sharing as a sign of weakness that would make them
more vulnerable within their dominance hierarchies.
○
•
5
• These different gender cultures can cause conflicts when girls and boys begin to
associate more together as they date and interact in adolescence and adulthood.
Because they don't share the same gender culture, girls and boys may have
difficulty understanding each others' perspectives.
Gender Dysphoria
: Gender dysphoria, part 1 : Gender dysphoria, part 2
Gender Dysphoria
Previously known as Gender Identity Disorder (GID)
Criteria
• A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and
assigned gender, of
at least 6 months duration, as manifested by at least 6 of the following:
A strong desire to be of the other gender or an insistence that one is the
other gender
1.
In boys (assigned gender), a strong preference for cross-dressing or
simulating female
attire; or in girls (assigned gender), a strong preference for wearing only
typical masculine
clothing and a strong resistance to the wearing of typical feminine clothing
2.
A strong preference for cross-gender roles in make-believe play or fantasy
play
3.
A strong preference for toys, games or activities stereotypically used or
engaged in by the
other gender
4.
A strong preference for playmates of the other gender 5.
In boys (assigned gender), a strong rejection of typically masculine toys,
games, and
activities and a strong avoidance of rough-and-tumble play; or in girls
(assigned gender), a
strong rejection of typically feminine toys, games, and activities
6.
A strong dislike of one’s sexual anatomy 7.
A strong desire for the primary and/or secondary sex characteristics that
match one’s
experienced gender
8.
The condition is associated with clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, school, or other important areas of functioning.
Gender Dysphoria controversies
Many people diagnosed with GD do not regard their own cross-gender
feelings and behaviours
as a ‘disorder’
•
They may question what a ‘normal’ gender identity or ‘normal’ gender role is
supposed to be
•
One argument is that gender characteristics are socially constructed and
therefore naturally
unrelated to biological sex
•
These topics will be discussed in Friday’s tutorial
Gender Roles: Adulthood
•
As people face the challenges of adult life and enter new social contexts, their
gender roles
and their concepts of themselves as men and women change
•
Gender in the workplace
• Discrimination: valuation in the labour market of personal characteristics of
a worker thatarenotrelatedtoproductivity(therelevant
‘personalcharacteristic’being‘sex’)
• Occupational segregation: most jobs are held by predominantly males or
females but some jobs less suited to females, e.g., those that require physical
strength such as building, hard manual labour etc.
• Females more likely to attend university than males
•
Child rearing: Women become primarily responsible for child care and
household tasks and
the men tend to emphasize their role as breadwinner and center their
energies on providing for the family
•
Video (duration 4:48) Video (duration 6:30)
6
Androgyny
1970’s women’s liberation movement: challenged traditional gender
stereotypes and roles in
Western societies
•
1970’s women’s liberation movement: challenged traditional gender
stereotypes and roles
•
Androgyny: when gender roles are flexible, allowing males and females to
behave in ways that
freely integrate traditional gender-type behaviours
•
So females can be dominant (a traditionally masculine characteristic) while
being caring (a traditionally feminine characteristic); males can be sensitive
and assertive
•
Bem (1977) developed a measure to assess androgyny, the famous Bem Sex
Role Inventory can be classified according to
•
Four gender orientations (Bem, 1977): • Masculine
• Feminine
• Androgynous
•
• Undifferentiated (see next slide)
21st century: post-androgynous era •
In many ways the 21st century is a post-androgynous era, in which a
predominant view embraces
the concept of gender-role transcendence, where individuals are viewed
primarily as individuals rather than in terms of categories such as masculine,
feminine or androgynous.
•
Androgynous individuals are less concerned about which activities are
gender-appropriate or inappropriate and more flexible in their responses to
various situations, e.g., Lady Gaga embraces lots of feminine and masculine
traits
•
Argues this is a more adjusted way to be BUT it may be more or less adaptive
depending on the environmental restrictions imposed by context and culture,
e.g., a feminine or androgynous orientation might suit close relationships,
while a masculine or androgynous orientation might suit a workplace
situation
Androgyny in pop culture...
•
We see more androgynous-looking individuals in recent times
Sexuality over the lifespan
Sexual beings from infancy onwards •
First sexual attractions around age 10 •
Adolescence provides a transition between the asexuality of childhood and
the sexuality of
adulthood
•
How an individual’s sex drive is expressed behaviourally greatly depends on
environmental
variables, including social and cultural factors
•
Transition to being sexually active: •
7
Increased sex drive •
Along with the maturation of sex organs, there are increased sexual feelings
or sex drive,
prompted in both males and females by increased levels of adrenal
androgens, which
reach their peak level between 10-12 years of age
•
Autoerotic (masturbation) – more common in boys than girls •
General attitudes to masturbation have changed from the punitive,
misguided views of
earlier decades to being accepted as a normal and explorative process
(although some
individuals still have feelings of guilt and shame surrounding this)
•
Mutual erotic (petting) – touching of areas such as breasts and genitals •
Sexual intercourse (coitus) – age at which this first occurs has steadily
declined, average
age suggested to be Year 11
Culture and early sexual activity: Expectations
•
Cultural groups tend to develop a shared sense of when males and females
‘should’ become sexually active
•
When do you think young people should begin sexual intercourse? •
The above graph shows international comparisons for ‘right’ age of first
intercourse
Sexual attitudes and behaviours
Sexual Orientation
•
Sexual orientation involves the gender of persons to whom an individual feels
sexually
attracted
8
It is different from gender-identity,(the psychological sense of being
masculine/man or feminine/woman) or gender role (the degree of
masculinity or femininity that individuals feel in regard to themselves)
•
Sexual orientation was once thought of as dichotomous, i.e., heterosexual or
homosexual. We now see it as on a continuum
•
o Self-labelling
o Adolescenceofatimewhenindividualsfirsthaveaclearideaofwhichsextheyare
attracted to
o
Individualsmayidentifywithaparticularminoritysexualorientationduringadolescence
through self-labelling as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning
o Disclosure
o Thissteptypicallytakeslongerthanself-labelling,andappliestothosewhohavea
minority sexual orientation can be a stressful event Friends
Family
o Dealingwithhomophobiainamainstreamworldthatstillhasprejudicetowards
minority sexual orientations can have implications for gender identity formation
in
these adolescents
Minority status in terms of sexual identity can carry with it greater risks to
health and wellbeing (in part due to verbal abuse, stigmatization and threats
of physical attack)
•
Related to greater rates of depression and suicide during adolescence •
Social learning and environment do not seem to influence sexual orientation
development: A
longitudinal study examined sexual orientation of children raised by lesbian
vs. heterosexual
couples and found no significant difference in sexual orientation of children
in adulthood
•
Identical twins more likely to share homosexual orientation than fraternal
twins suggests
biology more important
•
Overall, the origins of sexual orientation are still unclear, but it is assumed
that complex
biopsychosocial processes influence patterns of interpersonal attraction
A helpful summary
Video (duration 3:48 mins)
Common sexual dysfunctions
•
• Sexual dysfunction:
Sexuality depends on having healthy body functioning, feelings and attitudes
conducive to arousal. As with any behaviour that depends on integration of
all these domains, problems with sexual performance are not uncommon
•
An inability to function adequately in or enjoy sexual activities •
• Low sexual desire
9
Can be due to biological causes, e.g., androgen (the sex hormone associated
with sex drive), medications
•
But the majority of cases are due to psychological factors, e.g., stress,
preoccupation with problems of work/children, fear of sexual intimacy, anger
or hostility towards one’s partner, low self-esteem, negative attitudes about
sex
•
Prevalence for males = 11-25%; 23-55% for females (differences in reported
rates probably due to age of participants in the study)
•
Female orgasmic problems
Primary – if a sexually active woman has never experienced an orgasm
(usually due to psychological rather than physical causes); prevalence =
15-29%
○
Secondary – if the woman has attained orgasm in the past, but no
longer can
○
Failure to have orgasms is not considered a sexual dysfunction, but can
make women (and their partners) unhappy about therefore is
sometimes seen as a problem
○
•
Male ejaculatory and erectile problems •
Can be very distressing for the individual if this continues over a longer period
of
time
Reproductive change and sexuality
Female climacteric (refers to the entire process that ends with menopause)
•
Peri-menopause •
Frist stage, where the ovaries gradually decrease hormone production
Headaches, migraine, back pain, stiff joints, tiredness, difficulty
sleeping
○
Menstrual irregularity periods may become more closely or widely
spaced or
irregular
○
Tendency to gain weight
○
Hot flushes
○
•
Menopause (second stage, defined as when a previously menstruating
woman has gone an
entire year without a menstrual period)
•
Hormone production declines further and the ovaries cease to produce eggs,
and menstruation
ceases
Menstruation ceases at average age of 51 years
○
Can no longer fall pregnant
○
Vaginal changes
○
•
Timing seems to be genetically determined – daughters and mothers tend to
have similar timing; environmental factors associated with slightly earlier
menopause include smoking, not having children, later onset of menstruation
and malnourishment
•
Post-menopause
Hormonal levels stabilize and menopausal signs subside
○
Significantly less oestrogen
Reproductive change and sexuality
○
•
• Male climacteric
• Gradual process that produces changes in the reproductive system and reduces
fertility
Decreased testicular functioning •
Gradually decreasing testosterone •
But considerable individual differences exist – some older men continue to
have
testosterone levels as high as those of younger men 10
•
Prostate atrophy – begins after the age of 45 •
Psychological symptoms – mood swings, irritability, alterations in
concentration
span and memory lapses are all possible
•
Does not lead to sterility •
Men have been known to father children in their 70s and 80s •
Starts in the 40-50s and continues over a longer period of time and at a much
slower
rate than the female climacteric
Sexuality in middle adulthood Sexual functioning changes:
•
Slow arousal •
Less intense orgasm •
Quicker return to pre-arousal •
But also a time when those with partners have more time and energy for
each other. They also
have less fear of pregnancy and better communication. All of these factors
can increase sexual satisfaction.
Changes in sexual functioning in late adulthood
•
Changes in hormones, illness or medication use; psychological factors,
attitudes; and social
factors, availability of a partner and relationship quality
•
Decrease in frequency more limited in older women than men •
Individual factors predict strength of sexual desire at 45+ years •
Individual factors predict strength of sexual desire at 45+ years •
Age and importance of sex to the person predict strength of sexual desire in
both genders it
seems attitude influences sexual desire more than biomedical factors
•
Many older adults continue to enjoy an active sex life
Gender gap in life expectancy
•
• Women live longer, however their social disadvantage puts them at a higher risk
than men for
morbidity
Less employment •
More deeply felt stress and unhappiness •
Stronger feelings of vulnerability to illness •
Fewer formal time constraints •
Less physically strenuous leisure activities
Food for thought...
What happens when typical gender roles are violated? Video (duration 3:30
mins)
See excerpt from “What Women Want” movie
•
Provides an interesting perspective on what we view as normalbehaviour for
males and
females
Week 8
Friday, 27 April 2018
11:53 AM
Overview
Gender identity development over:
• Infancy
• Childhood
• Adolescence
•
Theories of gender development (different theoretical frameworks explaining
the development of gender roles and behaviours)
•
Gender Dysphoria •
Key stages of sexuality over the lifespan
Key Terminology
•
Sex: biological categories of male and female •
Gender: socially constructed categories of feminine and masculine •
Gender roles: societal expectations of behaviours exhibited by males and
females
•
These are defined by the range of behaviours that are expected of a
particular gender group
•
Gender typing: the process by which children acquire a set of behaviours that
are consistent
with the gender roles specific to their culture
•
Gender stereotyping: generalised mental representations that differentiate
gender groups
•
In Western societies, males are stereotypically viewed as aggressive,
independent and confident;
Females are typically viewed as emotionally expressive, nurturing & gentle
•
The social behaviours of boys and girls in Western societies differ from an
early age: boys exhibit
higher levels of physical aggression, dominance in groups and rough-and-
tumble play vs. girls show greater verbal and relational aggression and more
supportive social communication
Gender Identity: Infancy & childhood
Newborns are soon labelled as boys or girls
○
Infants are often labelled before they are born, due to ability to find
out the gender of a fetus as
early as 10 weeks gestation via a newly developed non-invasive blood
test
○
•
• Differential treatment
Girl and boy infants elicit different responses, based on perceived gender.
Boys are more often
given blue/masculine toys and girls given pink/feminine toys, but the
differences go beyond that. Research indicates that infant girls are treated as
more delicate than boys and boys get more attention for gross motor
behaviour (e.g., moving arms and legs). On average, mothers verbalize more
to female infants.
•
In the 1970s, fathers were typically more extreme than mothers in
differentiating infants based on gender. A classic study showed that both
mothers and fathers tended to rate newborn girls as finer featured, less
strong, more delicate and more feminine than newborn boys. Research
indicates that gender stereotyping has decreased since the 1970s, however is
still present. Similar findings have been revealed in studies where non-parent
adults are told the gender of the baby is a boy or girl, however the gender of
the infant (e.g., female) is actually kept consistent across participants, rather
than varied. This indicates that it is not actual differences between genders
that are driving these perceived differences by adults.
•
3-4 months: distinguish male and female faces
•
12 months: distinguish male and female voices
•
2 years: identity self as boy or girl
•
3 years: gender typing, preference in playmates
•
1
Gender typing is when a child becomes aware of their gender and thus
behaves in line with this, by adopting values and attributes of members of
their own sex.
•
Preference for same-sex play mates develops around 2-3 years, but is clearly
evident by 3 years.
•
At 3 years, children are more interactive and sociable when playing with
same-sex friends. When
they are with the opposite sex, they tend to watch or play alongside the
other child rather than interact directly. Preschool children spend very little
time playing one-on-one with the opposite sex. They spend some time in
mixed-sex groups but spend most of their time, by far, playing with same-sex
peers.
•
It seems this gender preference in playmates is at least partially linked to
socialization processes, but children may also gravitate toward peers with
similar play styles. Girls generally engage in more nurturing-and-mothering-
type behaviours, while boys show greater instances of rough- and-tumble
play. For much of human history, people lived in small hunter-gatherer
societies. Over time evolutionary forces may have selected for children’s play
activities related to adult survival skills.
•
6+: gender segregation •
By 6 years, gender segregation is so prevalent that if you watch 6-year-olds in
a playground, you
typically will see only one girl-boy group for every 11 boy-boy or girl-girl
groups.
Video on gender segregation
Video duration 1:58 – Jimmy Kimmel asks children what it means to be a boy
or a girl
Gender Identity: Adolescence
•
Gender intensification: a magnification of differences between males &
females associated
with increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles
•
Social pressures on adolescents to conform to traditional roles may help
explain why sex
differences in cognitive abilities sometimes become more noticeable as
children enter
adolescence
•
Pressure to conform to gender stereotypes does not need to be real
adolescents’
perceptions of their peers’ thoughts and expectations can affect behaviours
& lead to gender intensification
Biological & evolutionary theories of gender
Evolutionary psychology: gender roles are genetically blueprinted
○
Evolutionary psychologists view gender roles and gender-typed behave
as the result of
genetically based blueprints that have evolved over millions of years in
response to
environmental demands and natural selection
○
Evolutionary theories say modern gender roles have their roots in
prehistoric male-female role differences
○
Because of their physical attributes, women are the child-bearers and
principal care-givers, while men are the hunters and providers for the
family.
○
Males with more stereotypically male attributes, such as forcefulness
and competitiveness, would have been successful hunters and
providers for the family.
○
Through natural selection, women would have been more likely to
choose them as the fathers of their offspring, making them more
attractive partners.
○
So in evolutionary theory, the traits contributing to gender roles were
naturally selected over millions of years and it’s argued that these roles
are still played out by modern males and females, despite the reality
that modern technology makes some of the traditional aspects of
gender roles largely interchangeable.
○
Biological theories of gender-role dev attribute behavioural differences
in gender roles for boys and girls to hormonal influences.
○
•
2
Male and female hormones produce marked physiological differences and
may profoundly affect sex-typed behaviour.
•
Studies of children exposed to unusual levels of sex hormones provide key
evidence for this, e.g., Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) causes
abnormally high levels of male hormones (androgens) in young children who
are biologically female, but who may have male-looking genitals. Surgery is
sometimes used to correct the anomaly and these children are generally
raised as females. But studies have shown that CAH females show a greater
interest in boys’ gendered activities such as rough-and-tumble play and often
dislike girls’ toys and gender activities more than non-CAH female siblings do.
This suggests sex hormones influence gender identity and gender-typed
behaviour.
•
Biological theories of gender-role development give evidence of the
underlying scaffolding of gender-typed behaviours, but they do not
completely account for gender-role development, e.g., in isolation, sex
hormones are unlikely to inspire the diversity observed in children’s gender-
typed behaviour. The social environment also needs to be considered.
Learning theories of gender
•
Gender roles and gender-type behaviours are learnt from interactions
between the individual and the environment.
•
Unlike the biological factors related to gender-role development, the social-
environmental factors that may influence gender-role dev are not universal.
This is because social environments across the world vary, and gender-based
behave and values that are the norm in one culture may not be prevalent in
another/
•
One prominent theory is: •
Bussey and Bandura’s theory maintains gender roles and behaviours are
learnt through
reinforcement of gender-appropriate behaviours, modelling and children’s
self-regulation of
behaviours
•
Parents exert strong influence over child’s environment (i.e., dressing boys
and girls differently
and buying sex-typed toys)
•
E.g., girls praised for dancing and dressing up and boys for running and
jumping
•
Research indicates parents are more likely to reward sons for being assertive,
independent,
physically active and emotionally inexpressive and daughters for being
emotionally expressive,
accommodating, dependent and physically passive.
•
Boys are discouraged more strongly than girls for participating in cross-
gender play (more
acceptable for a girl to play with a truck than a boy to play with a doll).
•
Gender-appropriate behaviour is also reinforced by other children, e.g., other
same-sex children
more likely to imitate behaviours if gender-appropriate and ridicule if not
(from age 3).
•
Parents, siblings and peers may provide strong models for gender roles and
gender-typed
behaviours.
•
Wider society also plays a role in models, via television, video games,
magazines, children’s
books, social media etc.
•
Limitations of theory •
There is evidence for the effects of both reinforcement and modelling in the
development of
gender-typed behaviours, however the social-learning approach to gender
development is limited by its portrayal of children as passive recipients of
gender-role influences. It does not take the child’s own understanding of
gender and the different developmental stages children pass through into
consideration. It also does not consider the role social, cognitive, social and
emotional maturation might play in acquiring gender roles. Cognitive theories
address some of these concerns.
Learning theories of gender
•
3
Video (duration 1:58) Gender neutral parenting (Video shows UK family who are
raising their child as gender neutral)
Video (duration 7:25) Gender neutral parenting (Based in Toronto, debates issues
associated with gender neutral parenting)
Cognitive theories of gender
Children are active processors and seekers of gender-based information,
rather than passive
recipients of gender-role influences (as they are in social learning approach)
•
Cognitive theorists argue children construct their gender roles by watching
and selecting from their environment, rather than merely absorbing
information so children self-socialise into
their gender role, to a large extent, by seeking information relevant to their
own traditional
gender role and practicing relevant behaviour
•
Kohlberg’s (1966) 3-stage cognitive-developmental theory of gender-role
development
Gender labelling (2.5-3 years)
○
Based on appearance
○
May incorrectly classify people and do not recognise that gender is a
permanent
characteristic (e.g., that a boy can grow up to be a woman)
○
Gender stability (3.5-4.5 years)
○
Become aware of the permanency of gender, but, like children at the
preoperational
stage of cognitive development, may be misled by appearances (e.g., if
a person looks like a boy on the outside, i.e., short hair, wearing boy-
type clothes, then they must be a boy)
○
Gender constancy (4.5-7 years)
○
Children are no longer misled by appearances see gender as
consistent across time
and context
○
This stage is similar to Piaget’s stage of concrete operations, where a
child can conserve.
According to Kohlberg, children must achieve this kind of conservation
before gender- typed behaviour can develop. But research shows
children develop gendered behaviours long before gender becomes a
stable concept. So it appears that gender conservation is not
responsible for the acquisition of gender-typed behaviours/roles as
Kohlberg believed.
Gender Schema Theory
○
This theory closely follows Kohlberg’s ideas, but does not claim that
gender constancy is necessary for gender-role internalization.
○
Theory comes from information processing models, cognitive theories,
Kohlberg’s theory & self-concept theories
○
Gender schema = an organized set of gender-related beliefs that
influence behaviour
○
The gender schema begins to develop as the child:
Notices the differences between boys and girls
§
Learn sex-based associations, e.g., boys play with cars and girls
play with dolls
§
Knows own gender
§
Labels the two groups with some consistency
§
○
Information that does not fit the gender schemas tends to be either
forgotten or distorted to fit the schema
○
Limitation of cognitive theories: minimize the influence of the social
environment and culture
○
Overall, an approach that incorporates information from all of the
aforementioned theories will provide the best account of gender role
development
○
•
4
Reasons for gender segregation
Earlier in the lecture we discussed how gender segregation is highly prevalent
by 6 years of age. Why might this occur?
•
Here are the most prominent theories: •
Play compatibility: Some researchers believe that gender segregation occurs
because children
seek partners whose play styles match or complement their own. With
toddlers and young children, the first to segregate tend to be the most active
and disruptive boys and the most socially sensitive girls. Both types of
children prefer to play with others like them.
•
Cognitive schemas: Children develop concepts or ideas (schemas) about what
boys and girls are typically like. These concepts include stereotyped, and
often exaggerated, notions about gender differences. Examples: "Boys are
rough and like to fight and play with trucks" and "Girls are nice and like to talk
and play with dolls." Children use these cognitive schemas as filters when
they judge themselves and observe other children. "I am a boy, so I like to
play with trucks" is a concept that may lead boys to seek each other as
playmates. Schemas can also cause children to filter out or misremember
instances that contradict the schema. E.g., children discount the number of
times they've seen girls play ball and boys play with dolls. As children learn
gender- based schemas, their play and playmate preferences become more
segregated.
•
Operant conditioning: Reward and punishment also contribute to gender
segregation. Boys in particular—like the new boy in preschool who sat
"where the girls sit"—tend to incur harsh criticism when they cross gender
lines to play with girls. For most boys, being called a "sissy" is a major insult.
Although some girls revel in being "tomboys," others can feel conflicted
about being associated with stereotypically masculine activities. Whether
consciously or only inadvertently, parents, teachers, peers, the media, and
others contribute to gender segregation by reinforcing or rewarding sex-
typed behaviours in boys and girls and by punishing behaviour that does not
conform to stereotypes.
•
Psychoanalytic theory: One of the oldest views on gender segregation was
the theory formulated by Freud. Although Freud's view isn't given much
credence today, he offered the explanation that gender segregation occurs as
children repress their sexual feelings during the latency stage of
development. That is, children avoid interactions with the opposite sex to
avoid the guilty feelings they associate with sexuality. During this stage,
children channel their energies into less threatening pursuits such as
collecting trading cards or dolls. When they play with opposite-sex friends,
children often get teased about being "in love" or "going with" their friend.
Effects of gender segregation
Boys and girls grow up in different gender cultures, with different
influences
○
Regardless of why gender segregation occurs, one of its consequences
is that boys and girls grow
up in different gender cultures—different spheres of social influence
that are based on the
differences between male and female groups and affiliations.
○
Different types of play promote development of different skills
○
Rough-and-tumble play, chase, keep-away games, superhero warrior
games, and competitive
sports are more common activities among boys. Physical aggression,
independence, and dominance are common themes in boys' play. Girls'
play, however, tends to emphasize social closeness and sensitivity. Doll
play and playing house, for example, involve role- playing, turn taking,
nurturance, and affection.
○
Friendship group size differs for boys vs. girls
○
Another difference is that boys tend to play in larger groups; girls
develop closer ties in smaller
groups. As a consequence, girls may learn to share thoughts and
feelings and practice being good listeners in intimate friendships, while
boys see intimate sharing as a sign of weakness that would make them
more vulnerable within their dominance hierarchies.
○
•
5
• These different gender cultures can cause conflicts when girls and boys begin to
associate more together as they date and interact in adolescence and adulthood.
Because they don't share the same gender culture, girls and boys may have
difficulty understanding each others' perspectives.
Gender Dysphoria
: Gender dysphoria, part 1 : Gender dysphoria, part 2
Gender Dysphoria
Previously known as Gender Identity Disorder (GID)
Criteria
• A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and
assigned gender, of
at least 6 months duration, as manifested by at least 6 of the following:
A strong desire to be of the other gender or an insistence that one is the
other gender
1.
In boys (assigned gender), a strong preference for cross-dressing or
simulating female
attire; or in girls (assigned gender), a strong preference for wearing only
typical masculine
clothing and a strong resistance to the wearing of typical feminine clothing
2.
A strong preference for cross-gender roles in make-believe play or fantasy
play
3.
A strong preference for toys, games or activities stereotypically used or
engaged in by the
other gender
4.
A strong preference for playmates of the other gender 5.
In boys (assigned gender), a strong rejection of typically masculine toys,
games, and
activities and a strong avoidance of rough-and-tumble play; or in girls
(assigned gender), a
strong rejection of typically feminine toys, games, and activities
6.
A strong dislike of one’s sexual anatomy 7.
A strong desire for the primary and/or secondary sex characteristics that
match one’s
experienced gender
8.
The condition is associated with clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, school, or other important areas of functioning.
Gender Dysphoria controversies
Many people diagnosed with GD do not regard their own cross-gender
feelings and behaviours
as a ‘disorder’
•
They may question what a ‘normal’ gender identity or ‘normal’ gender role is
supposed to be
•
One argument is that gender characteristics are socially constructed and
therefore naturally
unrelated to biological sex
•
These topics will be discussed in Friday’s tutorial
Gender Roles: Adulthood
•
As people face the challenges of adult life and enter new social contexts, their
gender roles
and their concepts of themselves as men and women change
•
Gender in the workplace
• Discrimination: valuation in the labour market of personal characteristics of
a worker thatarenotrelatedtoproductivity(therelevant
‘personalcharacteristic’being‘sex’)
• Occupational segregation: most jobs are held by predominantly males or
females but some jobs less suited to females, e.g., those that require physical
strength such as building, hard manual labour etc.
• Females more likely to attend university than males
•
Child rearing: Women become primarily responsible for child care and
household tasks and
the men tend to emphasize their role as breadwinner and center their
energies on providing for the family
•
Video (duration 4:48) Video (duration 6:30)
6
Androgyny
1970’s women’s liberation movement: challenged traditional gender
stereotypes and roles in
Western societies
•
1970’s women’s liberation movement: challenged traditional gender
stereotypes and roles
•
Androgyny: when gender roles are flexible, allowing males and females to
behave in ways that
freely integrate traditional gender-type behaviours
•
So females can be dominant (a traditionally masculine characteristic) while
being caring (a traditionally feminine characteristic); males can be sensitive
and assertive
•
Bem (1977) developed a measure to assess androgyny, the famous Bem Sex
Role Inventory can be classified according to
•
Four gender orientations (Bem, 1977): • Masculine
• Feminine
• Androgynous
•
• Undifferentiated (see next slide)
21st century: post-androgynous era •
In many ways the 21st century is a post-androgynous era, in which a
predominant view embraces
the concept of gender-role transcendence, where individuals are viewed
primarily as individuals rather than in terms of categories such as masculine,
feminine or androgynous.
•
Androgynous individuals are less concerned about which activities are
gender-appropriate or inappropriate and more flexible in their responses to
various situations, e.g., Lady Gaga embraces lots of feminine and masculine
traits
•
Argues this is a more adjusted way to be BUT it may be more or less adaptive
depending on the environmental restrictions imposed by context and culture,
e.g., a feminine or androgynous orientation might suit close relationships,
while a masculine or androgynous orientation might suit a workplace
situation
Androgyny in pop culture...
•
We see more androgynous-looking individuals in recent times
Sexuality over the lifespan
Sexual beings from infancy onwards •
First sexual attractions around age 10 •
Adolescence provides a transition between the asexuality of childhood and
the sexuality of
adulthood
•
How an individual’s sex drive is expressed behaviourally greatly depends on
environmental
variables, including social and cultural factors
•
Transition to being sexually active: •
7
Increased sex drive •
Along with the maturation of sex organs, there are increased sexual feelings
or sex drive,
prompted in both males and females by increased levels of adrenal
androgens, which
reach their peak level between 10-12 years of age
•
Autoerotic (masturbation) – more common in boys than girls •
General attitudes to masturbation have changed from the punitive,
misguided views of
earlier decades to being accepted as a normal and explorative process
(although some
individuals still have feelings of guilt and shame surrounding this)
•
Mutual erotic (petting) – touching of areas such as breasts and genitals •
Sexual intercourse (coitus) – age at which this first occurs has steadily
declined, average
age suggested to be Year 11
Culture and early sexual activity: Expectations
•
Cultural groups tend to develop a shared sense of when males and females
‘should’ become sexually active
•
When do you think young people should begin sexual intercourse? •
The above graph shows international comparisons for ‘right’ age of first
intercourse
Sexual attitudes and behaviours
Sexual Orientation
•
Sexual orientation involves the gender of persons to whom an individual feels
sexually
attracted
8
It is different from gender-identity,(the psychological sense of being
masculine/man or feminine/woman) or gender role (the degree of
masculinity or femininity that individuals feel in regard to themselves)
•
Sexual orientation was once thought of as dichotomous, i.e., heterosexual or
homosexual. We now see it as on a continuum
•
o Self-labelling
o Adolescenceofatimewhenindividualsfirsthaveaclearideaofwhichsextheyare
attracted to
o
Individualsmayidentifywithaparticularminoritysexualorientationduringadolescence
through self-labelling as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning
o Disclosure
o Thissteptypicallytakeslongerthanself-labelling,andappliestothosewhohavea
minority sexual orientation can be a stressful event Friends
Family
o Dealingwithhomophobiainamainstreamworldthatstillhasprejudicetowards
minority sexual orientations can have implications for gender identity formation
in
these adolescents
Minority status in terms of sexual identity can carry with it greater risks to
health and wellbeing (in part due to verbal abuse, stigmatization and threats
of physical attack)
•
Related to greater rates of depression and suicide during adolescence •
Social learning and environment do not seem to influence sexual orientation
development: A
longitudinal study examined sexual orientation of children raised by lesbian
vs. heterosexual
couples and found no significant difference in sexual orientation of children
in adulthood
•
Identical twins more likely to share homosexual orientation than fraternal
twins suggests
biology more important
•
Overall, the origins of sexual orientation are still unclear, but it is assumed
that complex
biopsychosocial processes influence patterns of interpersonal attraction
A helpful summary
Video (duration 3:48 mins)
Common sexual dysfunctions
•
• Sexual dysfunction:
Sexuality depends on having healthy body functioning, feelings and attitudes
conducive to arousal. As with any behaviour that depends on integration of
all these domains, problems with sexual performance are not uncommon
•
An inability to function adequately in or enjoy sexual activities •
• Low sexual desire
9
Can be due to biological causes, e.g., androgen (the sex hormone associated
with sex drive), medications
•
But the majority of cases are due to psychological factors, e.g., stress,
preoccupation with problems of work/children, fear of sexual intimacy, anger
or hostility towards one’s partner, low self-esteem, negative attitudes about
sex
•
Prevalence for males = 11-25%; 23-55% for females (differences in reported
rates probably due to age of participants in the study)
•
Female orgasmic problems
Primary – if a sexually active woman has never experienced an orgasm
(usually due to psychological rather than physical causes); prevalence =
15-29%
○
Secondary – if the woman has attained orgasm in the past, but no
longer can
○
Failure to have orgasms is not considered a sexual dysfunction, but can
make women (and their partners) unhappy about therefore is
sometimes seen as a problem
○
•
Male ejaculatory and erectile problems •
Can be very distressing for the individual if this continues over a longer period
of
time
Reproductive change and sexuality
Female climacteric (refers to the entire process that ends with menopause)
•
Peri-menopause •
Frist stage, where the ovaries gradually decrease hormone production
Headaches, migraine, back pain, stiff joints, tiredness, difficulty
sleeping
○
Menstrual irregularity periods may become more closely or widely
spaced or
irregular
○
Tendency to gain weight
○
Hot flushes
○
•
Menopause (second stage, defined as when a previously menstruating
woman has gone an
entire year without a menstrual period)
•
Hormone production declines further and the ovaries cease to produce eggs,
and menstruation
ceases
Menstruation ceases at average age of 51 years
○
Can no longer fall pregnant
○
Vaginal changes
○
•
Timing seems to be genetically determined – daughters and mothers tend to
have similar timing; environmental factors associated with slightly earlier
menopause include smoking, not having children, later onset of menstruation
and malnourishment
•
Post-menopause
Hormonal levels stabilize and menopausal signs subside
○
Significantly less oestrogen
Reproductive change and sexuality
○
•
• Male climacteric
• Gradual process that produces changes in the reproductive system and reduces
fertility
Decreased testicular functioning •
Gradually decreasing testosterone •
But considerable individual differences exist – some older men continue to
have
testosterone levels as high as those of younger men 10
•
Prostate atrophy – begins after the age of 45 •
Psychological symptoms – mood swings, irritability, alterations in
concentration
span and memory lapses are all possible
•
Does not lead to sterility •
Men have been known to father children in their 70s and 80s •
Starts in the 40-50s and continues over a longer period of time and at a much
slower
rate than the female climacteric
Sexuality in middle adulthood Sexual functioning changes:
•
Slow arousal •
Less intense orgasm •
Quicker return to pre-arousal •
But also a time when those with partners have more time and energy for
each other. They also
have less fear of pregnancy and better communication. All of these factors
can increase sexual satisfaction.
Changes in sexual functioning in late adulthood
•
Changes in hormones, illness or medication use; psychological factors,
attitudes; and social
factors, availability of a partner and relationship quality
•
Decrease in frequency more limited in older women than men •
Individual factors predict strength of sexual desire at 45+ years •
Individual factors predict strength of sexual desire at 45+ years •
Age and importance of sex to the person predict strength of sexual desire in
both genders it
seems attitude influences sexual desire more than biomedical factors
•
Many older adults continue to enjoy an active sex life
Gender gap in life expectancy
•
• Women live longer, however their social disadvantage puts them at a higher risk
than men for
morbidity
Less employment •
More deeply felt stress and unhappiness •
Stronger feelings of vulnerability to illness •
Fewer formal time constraints •
Less physically strenuous leisure activities
Food for thought...
What happens when typical gender roles are violated? Video (duration 3:30
mins)
See excerpt from “What Women Want” movie
•
Provides an interesting perspective on what we view as normalbehaviour for
males and
females
Week 8
Friday, 27 April 2018 11:53 AM
Overview
Gender identity development over:
• Infancy
• Childhood
• Adolescence
•
Theories of gender development (different theoretical frameworks explaining
the development of gender roles and behaviours)
•
Gender Dysphoria •
Key stages of sexuality over the lifespan
Key Terminology
•
Sex: biological categories of male and female •
Gender: socially constructed categories of feminine and masculine •
Gender roles: societal expectations of behaviours exhibited by males and
females
•
These are defined by the range of behaviours that are expected of a
particular gender group
•
Gender typing: the process by which children acquire a set of behaviours that
are consistent
with the gender roles specific to their culture
•
Gender stereotyping: generalised mental representations that differentiate
gender groups
•
In Western societies, males are stereotypically viewed as aggressive,
independent and confident;
Females are typically viewed as emotionally expressive, nurturing & gentle
•
The social behaviours of boys and girls in Western societies differ from an
early age: boys exhibit
higher levels of physical aggression, dominance in groups and rough-and-
tumble play vs. girls show greater verbal and relational aggression and more
supportive social communication
Gender Identity: Infancy & childhood
Newborns are soon labelled as boys or girls
○
Infants are often labelled before they are born, due to ability to find
out the gender of a fetus as
early as 10 weeks gestation via a newly developed non-invasive blood
test
○
•
• Differential treatment
Girl and boy infants elicit different responses, based on perceived gender.
Boys are more often
given blue/masculine toys and girls given pink/feminine toys, but the
differences go beyond that. Research indicates that infant girls are treated as
more delicate than boys and boys get more attention for gross motor
behaviour (e.g., moving arms and legs). On average, mothers verbalize more
to female infants.
•
In the 1970s, fathers were typically more extreme than mothers in
differentiating infants based on gender. A classic study showed that both
mothers and fathers tended to rate newborn girls as finer featured, less
strong, more delicate and more feminine than newborn boys. Research
indicates that gender stereotyping has decreased since the 1970s, however is
still present. Similar findings have been revealed in studies where non-parent
adults are told the gender of the baby is a boy or girl, however the gender of
the infant (e.g., female) is actually kept consistent across participants, rather
than varied. This indicates that it is not actual differences between genders
that are driving these perceived differences by adults.
•
3-4 months: distinguish male and female faces •
12 months: distinguish male and female voices •
2 years: identity self as boy or girl •
3 years: gender typing, preference in playmates •
1
Gender typing is when a child becomes aware of their gender and thus
behaves in line with this, by adopting values and attributes of members of
their own sex.
•
Preference for same-sex play mates develops around 2-3 years, but is clearly
evident by 3 years.
•
At 3 years, children are more interactive and sociable when playing with
same-sex friends. When
they are with the opposite sex, they tend to watch or play alongside the
other child rather than interact directly. Preschool children spend very little
time playing one-on-one with the opposite sex. They spend some time in
mixed-sex groups but spend most of their time, by far, playing with same-sex
peers.
•
It seems this gender preference in playmates is at least partially linked to
socialization processes, but children may also gravitate toward peers with
similar play styles. Girls generally engage in more nurturing-and-mothering-
type behaviours, while boys show greater instances of rough- and-tumble
play. For much of human history, people lived in small hunter-gatherer
societies. Over time evolutionary forces may have selected for children’s play
activities related to adult survival skills.
•
6+: gender segregation
•
By 6 years, gender segregation is so prevalent that if you watch 6-year-olds in
a playground, you
typically will see only one girl-boy group for every 11 boy-boy or girl-girl
groups.
Video on gender segregation
Video duration 1:58 – Jimmy Kimmel asks children what it means to be a boy
or a girl
Gender Identity: Adolescence
•
Gender intensification: a magnification of differences between males &
females associated
with increased pressure to conform to traditional gender roles
•
Social pressures on adolescents to conform to traditional roles may help
explain why sex
differences in cognitive abilities sometimes become more noticeable as
children enter
adolescence
•
Pressure to conform to gender stereotypes does not need to be real
adolescents’
perceptions of their peers’ thoughts and expectations can affect behaviours
& lead to gender intensification
Biological & evolutionary theories of gender
Evolutionary psychology: gender roles are genetically blueprinted
○
Evolutionary psychologists view gender roles and gender-typed behave
as the result of
genetically based blueprints that have evolved over millions of years in
response to
environmental demands and natural selection
○
Evolutionary theories say modern gender roles have their roots in
prehistoric male-female role differences
○
Because of their physical attributes, women are the child-bearers and
principal care-givers, while men are the hunters and providers for the
family.
○
Males with more stereotypically male attributes, such as forcefulness
and competitiveness, would have been successful hunters and
providers for the family.
○
Through natural selection, women would have been more likely to
choose them as the fathers of their offspring, making them more
attractive partners.
○
So in evolutionary theory, the traits contributing to gender roles were
naturally selected over millions of years and it’s argued that these roles
are still played out by modern males and females, despite the reality
that modern technology makes some of the traditional aspects of
gender roles largely interchangeable.
○
Biological theories of gender-role dev attribute behavioural differences
in gender roles for boys and girls to hormonal influences.
○
•
2
Male and female hormones produce marked physiological differences and
may profoundly affect sex-typed behaviour.
•
Studies of children exposed to unusual levels of sex hormones provide key
evidence for this, e.g., Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) causes
abnormally high levels of male hormones (androgens) in young children who
are biologically female, but who may have male-looking genitals. Surgery is
sometimes used to correct the anomaly and these children are generally
raised as females. But studies have shown that CAH females show a greater
interest in boys’ gendered activities such as rough-and-tumble play and often
dislike girls’ toys and gender activities more than non-CAH female siblings do.
This suggests sex hormones influence gender identity and gender-typed
behaviour.
•
Biological theories of gender-role development give evidence of the
underlying scaffolding of gender-typed behaviours, but they do not
completely account for gender-role development, e.g., in isolation, sex
hormones are unlikely to inspire the diversity observed in children’s gender-
typed behaviour. The social environment also needs to be considered.
Learning theories of gender
•
Gender roles and gender-type behaviours are learnt from interactions
between the individual and the environment.
•
Unlike the biological factors related to gender-role development, the social-
environmental factors that may influence gender-role dev are not universal.
This is because social environments across the world vary, and gender-based
behave and values that are the norm in one culture may not be prevalent in
another/
•
One prominent theory is: •
Bussey and Bandura’s theory maintains gender roles and behaviours are
learnt through
reinforcement of gender-appropriate behaviours, modelling and children’s
self-regulation of
behaviours
•
Parents exert strong influence over child’s environment (i.e., dressing boys
and girls differently
and buying sex-typed toys)
•
E.g., girls praised for dancing and dressing up and boys for running and
jumping
•
Research indicates parents are more likely to reward sons for being assertive,
independent,
physically active and emotionally inexpressive and daughters for being
emotionally expressive,
accommodating, dependent and physically passive.
•
Boys are discouraged more strongly than girls for participating in cross-
gender play (more
acceptable for a girl to play with a truck than a boy to play with a doll).
•
Gender-appropriate behaviour is also reinforced by other children, e.g., other
same-sex children
more likely to imitate behaviours if gender-appropriate and ridicule if not
(from age 3).
•
Parents, siblings and peers may provide strong models for gender roles and
gender-typed
behaviours.
•
Wider society also plays a role in models, via television, video games,
magazines, children’s
books, social media etc.
•
Limitations of theory •
There is evidence for the effects of both reinforcement and modelling in the
development of
gender-typed behaviours, however the social-learning approach to gender
development is limited by its portrayal of children as passive recipients of
gender-role influences. It does not take the child’s own understanding of
gender and the different developmental stages children pass through into
consideration. It also does not consider the role social, cognitive, social and
emotional maturation might play in acquiring gender roles. Cognitive theories
address some of these concerns.
Learning theories of gender
•
3
Video (duration 1:58) Gender neutral parenting (Video shows UK family who are
raising their child as gender neutral)
Video (duration 7:25) Gender neutral parenting (Based in Toronto, debates issues
associated with gender neutral parenting)
Cognitive theories of gender
Children are active processors and seekers of gender-based information,
rather than passive
recipients of gender-role influences (as they are in social learning approach)
•
Cognitive theorists argue children construct their gender roles by watching
and selecting from their environment, rather than merely absorbing
information so children self-socialise into
their gender role, to a large extent, by seeking information relevant to their
own traditional
gender role and practicing relevant behaviour
•
Kohlberg’s (1966) 3-stage cognitive-developmental theory of gender-role
development
Gender labelling (2.5-3 years)
○
Based on appearance
○
May incorrectly classify people and do not recognise that gender is a
permanent
characteristic (e.g., that a boy can grow up to be a woman)
○
Gender stability (3.5-4.5 years)
○
Become aware of the permanency of gender, but, like children at the
preoperational
stage of cognitive development, may be misled by appearances (e.g., if
a person looks like a boy on the outside, i.e., short hair, wearing boy-
type clothes, then they must be a boy)
○
Gender constancy (4.5-7 years)
○
Children are no longer misled by appearances see gender as
consistent across time
and context
○
This stage is similar to Piaget’s stage of concrete operations, where a
child can conserve.
According to Kohlberg, children must achieve this kind of conservation
before gender- typed behaviour can develop. But research shows
children develop gendered behaviours long before gender becomes a
stable concept. So it appears that gender conservation is not
responsible for the acquisition of gender-typed behaviours/roles as
Kohlberg believed.
Gender Schema Theory
○
This theory closely follows Kohlberg’s ideas, but does not claim that
gender constancy is necessary for gender-role internalization.
○
Theory comes from information processing models, cognitive theories,
Kohlberg’s theory & self-concept theories
○
Gender schema = an organized set of gender-related beliefs that
influence behaviour
○
The gender schema begins to develop as the child:
Notices the differences between boys and girls
§
Learn sex-based associations, e.g., boys play with cars and girls
play with dolls
§
Knows own gender
§
Labels the two groups with some consistency
§
○
Information that does not fit the gender schemas tends to be either
forgotten or distorted to fit the schema
○
Limitation of cognitive theories: minimize the influence of the social
environment and culture
○
Overall, an approach that incorporates information from all of the
aforementioned theories will provide the best account of gender role
development
○
•
4
Reasons for gender segregation
Earlier in the lecture we discussed how gender segregation is highly prevalent
by 6 years of age. Why might this occur?
•
Here are the most prominent theories: •
Play compatibility: Some researchers believe that gender segregation occurs
because children
seek partners whose play styles match or complement their own. With
toddlers and young children, the first to segregate tend to be the most active
and disruptive boys and the most socially sensitive girls. Both types of
children prefer to play with others like them.
•
Cognitive schemas: Children develop concepts or ideas (schemas) about what
boys and girls are typically like. These concepts include stereotyped, and
often exaggerated, notions about gender differences. Examples: "Boys are
rough and like to fight and play with trucks" and "Girls are nice and like to talk
and play with dolls." Children use these cognitive schemas as filters when
they judge themselves and observe other children. "I am a boy, so I like to
play with trucks" is a concept that may lead boys to seek each other as
playmates. Schemas can also cause children to filter out or misremember
instances that contradict the schema. E.g., children discount the number of
times they've seen girls play ball and boys play with dolls. As children learn
gender- based schemas, their play and playmate preferences become more
segregated.
•
Operant conditioning: Reward and punishment also contribute to gender
segregation. Boys in particular—like the new boy in preschool who sat
"where the girls sit"—tend to incur harsh criticism when they cross gender
lines to play with girls. For most boys, being called a "sissy" is a major insult.
Although some girls revel in being "tomboys," others can feel conflicted
about being associated with stereotypically masculine activities. Whether
consciously or only inadvertently, parents, teachers, peers, the media, and
others contribute to gender segregation by reinforcing or rewarding sex-
typed behaviours in boys and girls and by punishing behaviour that does not
conform to stereotypes.
•
Psychoanalytic theory: One of the oldest views on gender segregation was
the theory formulated by Freud. Although Freud's view isn't given much
credence today, he offered the explanation that gender segregation occurs as
children repress their sexual feelings during the latency stage of
development. That is, children avoid interactions with the opposite sex to
avoid the guilty feelings they associate with sexuality. During this stage,
children channel their energies into less threatening pursuits such as
collecting trading cards or dolls. When they play with opposite-sex friends,
children often get teased about being "in love" or "going with" their friend.
Effects of gender segregation
Boys and girls grow up in different gender cultures, with different
influences
○
Regardless of why gender segregation occurs, one of its consequences
is that boys and girls grow
up in different gender cultures—different spheres of social influence
that are based on the
differences between male and female groups and affiliations.
○
Different types of play promote development of different skills
○
Rough-and-tumble play, chase, keep-away games, superhero warrior
games, and competitive
sports are more common activities among boys. Physical aggression,
independence, and dominance are common themes in boys' play. Girls'
play, however, tends to emphasize social closeness and sensitivity. Doll
play and playing house, for example, involve role- playing, turn taking,
nurturance, and affection.
○
Friendship group size differs for boys vs. girls
○
Another difference is that boys tend to play in larger groups; girls
develop closer ties in smaller
groups. As a consequence, girls may learn to share thoughts and
feelings and practice being good listeners in intimate friendships, while
boys see intimate sharing as a sign of weakness that would make them
more vulnerable within their dominance hierarchies.
○
•
5
• These different gender cultures can cause conflicts when girls and boys begin to
associate more together as they date and interact in adolescence and adulthood.
Because they don't share the same gender culture, girls and boys may have
difficulty understanding each others' perspectives.
Gender Dysphoria
: Gender dysphoria, part 1 : Gender dysphoria, part 2
Gender Dysphoria
Previously known as Gender Identity Disorder (GID)
Criteria
• A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and
assigned gender, of
at least 6 months duration, as manifested by at least 6 of the following:
A strong desire to be of the other gender or an insistence that one is the
other gender
1.
In boys (assigned gender), a strong preference for cross-dressing or
simulating female
attire; or in girls (assigned gender), a strong preference for wearing only
typical masculine
clothing and a strong resistance to the wearing of typical feminine clothing
2.
A strong preference for cross-gender roles in make-believe play or fantasy
play
3.
A strong preference for toys, games or activities stereotypically used or
engaged in by the
other gender
4.
A strong preference for playmates of the other gender 5.
In boys (assigned gender), a strong rejection of typically masculine toys,
games, and
activities and a strong avoidance of rough-and-tumble play; or in girls
(assigned gender), a
strong rejection of typically feminine toys, games, and activities
6.
A strong dislike of one’s sexual anatomy 7.
A strong desire for the primary and/or secondary sex characteristics that
match one’s
experienced gender
8.
The condition is associated with clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, school, or other important areas of functioning.
Gender Dysphoria controversies
Many people diagnosed with GD do not regard their own cross-gender
feelings and behaviours
as a ‘disorder’
•
They may question what a ‘normal’ gender identity or ‘normal’ gender role is
supposed to be
•
One argument is that gender characteristics are socially constructed and
therefore naturally
unrelated to biological sex
•
These topics will be discussed in Friday’s tutorial
Gender Roles: Adulthood
•
As people face the challenges of adult life and enter new social contexts, their
gender roles
and their concepts of themselves as men and women change
•
Gender in the workplace
• Discrimination: valuation in the labour market of personal characteristics of
a worker thatarenotrelatedtoproductivity(therelevant
‘personalcharacteristic’being‘sex’)
• Occupational segregation: most jobs are held by predominantly males or
females but some jobs less suited to females, e.g., those that require physical
strength such as building, hard manual labour etc.
• Females more likely to attend university than males
•
Child rearing: Women become primarily responsible for child care and
household tasks and
the men tend to emphasize their role as breadwinner and center their
energies on providing for the family
•
Video (duration 4:48) Video (duration 6:30)
6
Androgyny
1970’s women’s liberation movement: challenged traditional gender
stereotypes and roles in
Western societies
•
1970’s women’s liberation movement: challenged traditional gender
stereotypes and roles
•
Androgyny: when gender roles are flexible, allowing males and females to
behave in ways that
freely integrate traditional gender-type behaviours
•
So females can be dominant (a traditionally masculine characteristic) while
being caring (a traditionally feminine characteristic); males can be sensitive
and assertive
•
Bem (1977) developed a measure to assess androgyny, the famous Bem Sex
Role Inventory can be classified according to
•
Four gender orientations (Bem, 1977): • Masculine
• Feminine
• Androgynous
•
• Undifferentiated (see next slide)
21st century: post-androgynous era •
In many ways the 21st century is a post-androgynous era, in which a
predominant view embraces
the concept of gender-role transcendence, where individuals are viewed
primarily as individuals rather than in terms of categories such as masculine,
feminine or androgynous.
•
Androgynous individuals are less concerned about which activities are
gender-appropriate or inappropriate and more flexible in their responses to
various situations, e.g., Lady Gaga embraces lots of feminine and masculine
traits
•
Argues this is a more adjusted way to be BUT it may be more or less adaptive
depending on the environmental restrictions imposed by context and culture,
e.g., a feminine or androgynous orientation might suit close relationships,
while a masculine or androgynous orientation might suit a workplace
situation
Androgyny in pop culture...
•
We see more androgynous-looking individuals in recent times
Sexuality over the lifespan
Sexual beings from infancy onwards •
First sexual attractions around age 10 •
Adolescence provides a transition between the asexuality of childhood and
the sexuality of
adulthood
•
How an individual’s sex drive is expressed behaviourally greatly depends on
environmental
variables, including social and cultural factors
•
Transition to being sexually active: •
7
Increased sex drive •
Along with the maturation of sex organs, there are increased sexual feelings
or sex drive,
prompted in both males and females by increased levels of adrenal
androgens, which
reach their peak level between 10-12 years of age
•
Autoerotic (masturbation) – more common in boys than girls •
General attitudes to masturbation have changed from the punitive,
misguided views of
earlier decades to being accepted as a normal and explorative process
(although some
individuals still have feelings of guilt and shame surrounding this)
•
Mutual erotic (petting) – touching of areas such as breasts and genitals •
Sexual intercourse (coitus) – age at which this first occurs has steadily
declined, average
age suggested to be Year 11
Culture and early sexual activity: Expectations
•
Cultural groups tend to develop a shared sense of when males and females
‘should’ become sexually active
•
When do you think young people should begin sexual intercourse? •
The above graph shows international comparisons for ‘right’ age of first
intercourse
Sexual attitudes and behaviours
Sexual Orientation
•
Sexual orientation involves the gender of persons to whom an individual feels
sexually
attracted
8
It is different from gender-identity,(the psychological sense of being
masculine/man or feminine/woman) or gender role (the degree of
masculinity or femininity that individuals feel in regard to themselves)
•
Sexual orientation was once thought of as dichotomous, i.e., heterosexual or
homosexual. We now see it as on a continuum
•
o Self-labelling
o Adolescenceofatimewhenindividualsfirsthaveaclearideaofwhichsextheyare
attracted to
o
Individualsmayidentifywithaparticularminoritysexualorientationduringadolescence
through self-labelling as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning
o Disclosure
o Thissteptypicallytakeslongerthanself-labelling,andappliestothosewhohavea
minority sexual orientation can be a stressful event Friends
Family
o Dealingwithhomophobiainamainstreamworldthatstillhasprejudicetowards
minority sexual orientations can have implications for gender identity formation
in
these adolescents
Minority status in terms of sexual identity can carry with it greater risks to
health and wellbeing (in part due to verbal abuse, stigmatization and threats
of physical attack)
•
Related to greater rates of depression and suicide during adolescence •
Social learning and environment do not seem to influence sexual orientation
development: A
longitudinal study examined sexual orientation of children raised by lesbian
vs. heterosexual
couples and found no significant difference in sexual orientation of children
in adulthood
•
Identical twins more likely to share homosexual orientation than fraternal
twins suggests
biology more important
•
Overall, the origins of sexual orientation are still unclear, but it is assumed
that complex
biopsychosocial processes influence patterns of interpersonal attraction
A helpful summary
Video (duration 3:48 mins)
Common sexual dysfunctions
•
• Sexual dysfunction:
Sexuality depends on having healthy body functioning, feelings and attitudes
conducive to arousal. As with any behaviour that depends on integration of
all these domains, problems with sexual performance are not uncommon
•
An inability to function adequately in or enjoy sexual activities •
• Low sexual desire
9
Can be due to biological causes, e.g., androgen (the sex hormone associated
with sex drive), medications
•
But the majority of cases are due to psychological factors, e.g., stress,
preoccupation with problems of work/children, fear of sexual intimacy, anger
or hostility towards one’s partner, low self-esteem, negative attitudes about
sex
•
Prevalence for males = 11-25%; 23-55% for females (differences in reported
rates probably due to age of participants in the study)
•
Female orgasmic problems
Primary – if a sexually active woman has never experienced an orgasm
(usually due to psychological rather than physical causes); prevalence =
15-29%
○
Secondary – if the woman has attained orgasm in the past, but no
longer can
○
Failure to have orgasms is not considered a sexual dysfunction, but can
make women (and their partners) unhappy about therefore is
sometimes seen as a problem
○
•
Male ejaculatory and erectile problems •
Can be very distressing for the individual if this continues over a longer period
of
time
Reproductive change and sexuality
Female climacteric (refers to the entire process that ends with menopause)
•
Peri-menopause •
Frist stage, where the ovaries gradually decrease hormone production
Headaches, migraine, back pain, stiff joints, tiredness, difficulty
sleeping
○
Menstrual irregularity periods may become more closely or widely
spaced or
irregular
○
Tendency to gain weight
○
Hot flushes
○
•
Menopause (second stage, defined as when a previously menstruating
woman has gone an
entire year without a menstrual period)
•
Hormone production declines further and the ovaries cease to produce eggs,
and menstruation
ceases
Menstruation ceases at average age of 51 years
○
Can no longer fall pregnant
○
Vaginal changes
○
•
Timing seems to be genetically determined – daughters and mothers tend to
have similar timing; environmental factors associated with slightly earlier
menopause include smoking, not having children, later onset of menstruation
and malnourishment
•
Post-menopause
Hormonal levels stabilize and menopausal signs subside
○
Significantly less oestrogen
Reproductive change and sexuality
○
•
• Male climacteric
• Gradual process that produces changes in the reproductive system and reduces
fertility
Decreased testicular functioning •
Gradually decreasing testosterone •
But considerable individual differences exist – some older men continue to
have
testosterone levels as high as those of younger men 10
•
Prostate atrophy – begins after the age of 45 •
Psychological symptoms – mood swings, irritability, alterations in
concentration
span and memory lapses are all possible
•
Does not lead to sterility •
Men have been known to father children in their 70s and 80s •
Starts in the 40-50s and continues over a longer period of time and at a much
slower
rate than the female climacteric
Sexuality in middle adulthood Sexual functioning changes:
•
Slow arousal •
Less intense orgasm •
Quicker return to pre-arousal •
But also a time when those with partners have more time and energy for
each other. They also
have less fear of pregnancy and better communication. All of these factors
can increase sexual satisfaction.
Changes in sexual functioning in late adulthood
•
Changes in hormones, illness or medication use; psychological factors,
attitudes; and social
factors, availability of a partner and relationship quality
•
Decrease in frequency more limited in older women than men •
Individual factors predict strength of sexual desire at 45+ years •
Individual factors predict strength of sexual desire at 45+ years •
Age and importance of sex to the person predict strength of sexual desire in
both genders it
seems attitude influences sexual desire more than biomedical factors
•
Many older adults continue to enjoy an active sex life
Gender gap in life expectancy
•
• Women live longer, however their social disadvantage puts them at a higher risk
than men for
morbidity
Less employment •
More deeply felt stress and unhappiness •
Stronger feelings of vulnerability to illness •
Fewer formal time constraints •
Less physically strenuous leisure activities
Food for thought...
What happens when typical gender roles are violated? Video (duration 3:30
mins)
See excerpt from “What Women Want” movie
•
Provides an interesting perspective on what we view as normalbehaviour for
males and
females
Week 8
Friday, 27 April 2018 11:53 AM
Document Summary
Gender identity development over: infancy, childhood, adolescence. Theories of gender development (different theoretical frameworks explaining the development of gender roles and behaviours) Gender: socially constructed categories of feminine and masculine. Gender roles: societal expectations of behaviours exhibited by males and females. These are defined by the range of behaviours that are expected of a particular gender group. Gender typing: the process by which children acquire a set of behaviours that are consistent with the gender roles specific to their culture. Gender stereotyping: generalised mental representations that differentiate gender groups. In western societies, males are stereotypically viewed as aggressive, independent and confident; Females are typically viewed as emotionally expressive, nurturing & gentle. Newborns are soon labelled as boys or girls. Infants are often labelled before they are born, due to ability to find out the gender of a fetus as early as 10 weeks gestation via a newly developed non-invasive blood test test: differential treatment.
