BIOL 1003 Lecture Notes - Lecture 1: Glycosidic Bond, Phosphodiester Bond, Carbohydrate Metabolism

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Chapter 5

Biological Macromolecules: complex polymers (a long molecule consisted of similar or identical monomers linked by covalent

bonds) that are assembled from monomers (building blocks of polymers)

Ex. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats

Enzymes help speed up the reaction when synthesizing and breaking down polymers.

Dehydration (loss of water) is the synthesizing of polymer (monomers connect)

Hydrolysis is breaking the polymer by adding water.

Carbohydrates

-consists of simple sugars and polymers of sugars

-Monosaccharides (CH2O) mainly represented by glucose (C6H12O6). It has a carbonyl group (C=O) and multiple

hydroxyl group (-OH).

-Disaccharides are made of two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bond (by dehydration)

-Polysaccharides are made up of few hundred of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic acid.

-Storages polysaccharides are plants and animals storing sugar for later use.

-Starch is stored by plants (glucose joined by -(1-4) linkages). It represents as stored energy.

-Glycogen is stored by animals (joined by -(1-4) linkages)

-Structural polysaccharides are what makes the organisms build strong materials.

-Cellulose is a component of the tough walls that enclose plants cells. Glucoses are joined by

 (1-4) linkages. Humans cannot digest cellulose.

-Chitin the carbohydrates used by insects to build their exoskeletons. Similar to cellulose but has a nitrogen-

containing appendages.

Proteins

-they consists of one or more polypeptides (unbranched polymers built from 20 amino acids)

-some proteins speed up chemical reactions, while others defence, storage, transport, cellular communication,

movement or structure support.

-Catalyst enzymatic proteins that regulate metabolism.

-Amino acids ae linked by peptide bond so a polymer of amino acids are called polypeptide

-Amino acids are made of amino group (NH2), carboxyl group (OH-C=O), hydrogen atom and side chain (R group).

The center has an  carbon.

-If thee’s a hage i pH, salt oetatio, tepeatue o othe aspets of the eioet, it causes weak

chemical bonds and interactions w/in a protein may be destroyed, causing the protein to unravel and lose its native shape, its

called denaturation.

-Renaturation is when it regains its activity. From denatured protein to normal protein.

-Levels of protein structure

-Pia: liea hai of aio aids the seuees of aio aids i ode. It’s

determined by inherited genetic information. It dictates secondary and tertiary structure.

-Secondary: (region stabilized by H-ods / atos of polpeptide akoes It’s the

repeated coiled ( helix) or folded ( pleated sheet) in patterns. Fibrous proteins are defined by secondary structure

like collagen.

-Tertiary: (3-D shape stabilized by interactions b/ side chains). Hydrophobic interactions is whenpolypeptide

folds ito it’s futioal shape, aio aids usuall ed up i a luste at the oe of the potei out of otat  ate. Van der

Waals interactions help hold the nonpolar amino acids together. Hydrogen bonds b/ polar side chains helps stabilize tertiary

structures. Covalent bonds called disulphide bridges (-S-S-) reinforce the shape of proteins.

-Quaternary: (association of multiple polypeptides, forming a functional protein) the overall protein

structure that result from the aggregation of these polypeptide subunits.

-Chaperonins are protein molecules that assist in the proper folding of other proteins. It keeps new polypeptide

separated from descriptive chemical conditions.

-Cofactors are non-protein compound that is bound to a protein and is essential for that proteins function like

vitamins and minerals.

Nucleic acids

-made of nucleotides

-they transmit and help express hereditary information

-gene is the inheritance unit

-polymers of nucleotides are DNA and RNA and called polynucleotides

-Nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester bonds

-Nucleotides consist of nitrogenous bases, 5 carbon sugar, and phosphate group

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-Nucleoside has no phosphate group

-Pyrimides are 1 sex-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms (Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil)

-Purines are larger with six-membered ring fused to a 5-membered ring (Adenine and Guanine)

-A,G,C in DNA and RNA; T in DNA and U in RNA

-DNA fos a doule heli stad ad i 5’ to 3’ dietio ad ae atipaallel to each other

Lipids

-they are hydrophobic molecules; mixed poorly w/ water

-Fatty acids are made up of long, hydrophobic carbon skeleton that has carboxyl group at one end and has

hydrocarbon chain on the rest of the skeleton.

-Glycerol and fatty acids are joined by ester linages to for triacylglcerols

-fats are energy storage

-“atuated fatt aids do ot hae doule ods ad ae solid at oo tepeatue. It’s satuated / hydrogen

-Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds and is in liquid form.

-Phospholipids are two fatty acids and phosphate group attached to gleol. It’s to fatt tails ae

hydrophobic and the phosphate group is hydrophilic. It self-assembles to a bilayer when added to water.

Tails are hydrophobic (away from water) and heads are hydrophilic (affinity w water).

-Steroids has a carbon skeleton with four fused rings.

-Cholesterol is in animals cell membranes

Monomers

Polymers

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

(glycosidic bond)

Disaccharides, polysaccharides

Proteins

Amino acids (peptide bonds)

polypeptides

Nucleic acids

Nucleotides

(phosphodiester bond)

DNA. RNA

Lipids

Fatty acids / glycerol

(ester linkages)

glycerol phosphate derivative/ fatty acids

Triacylglcerols

phospholipids

Chapter 6The Cell

Prokaryotes

-Eubacteria and archaea

-Uses variety of substances as energy and carbon sources and synthesize almost all required organic molecules

-no nucleus, has nucleoid instead, no membrane-bound organelles

-Cytoplasm bound by plasma membrane and cell wall

-They have a plasma membrane that acts as a selective barrier for gases, nutrients and waste products. It has two

layers of phospholipids.

-Has ell alls that aitai it’s ell shape, potets the ell, and prevents in from bursting in a hypotonic

environment and cells walls contain peptidoglycan (network of sugar polymers)

Nucleus

-Only in eukaryotes

-Has a double membrane that fuses at the nuclear pore. This pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules from

nucleus.

-Nuclear lamina is made of proteins that maintains the nucleus shape

-Contains cells DNA and it is the information centre f the cell

-DNA is organized into units called chromosomes (made of a single DNA molecule with protein)

-Chromatin are DNA and proteins of chromosome

-In eukaryotes only, protein is made in the cytoplasm by translation of the mRNA on ribosomes.

-Nucleolus is specialized for the synthesis of rRNA and assembly of ribosomal subunits

Ribosomes

-made up of rRNA and protein; not organelle

-carries out protein synthesis in the cytosol (free ribosomes) and on the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum (bound

ribosomes)

Endomembrane system

-Endoplasmic reticulum

-Rough ER are bound ribosomes synthesize proteins. Many proteins produced are glycoproteins (proteins

covalently bonded to carbohydrate). Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes. Synthesizes

membranes for the cell.

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Document Summary

Chitin the carbohydrates used by insects to build their exoskeletons. Starch is stored by plants (glucose joined by -(1-4) linkages). Glycogen is stored by animals (joined by -(1-4) linkages) Cellulose is a component of the tough walls that enclose plants cells. They consists of one or more polypeptides (unbranched polymers built from 20 amino acids) Some proteins speed up chemical reactions, while others defence, storage, transport, cellular communication, Consists of simple sugars and polymers of sugars. It has a carbonyl group (c=o) and multiple. Amino acids ae linked by peptide bond so a polymer of amino acids are called polypeptide. Amino acids are made of amino group (nh2), carboxyl group (oh-c=o), hydrogen atom and side chain (r group). Disaccharides are made of two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bond (by dehydration) Polysaccharides are made up of few hundred of monosaccharides joined by glycosidic acid. Storages polysaccharides are plants and animals storing sugar for later use.

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sangriarat617

The digestion process begins at the mouth. Food enters and then accessory digestive organs like the tongue, teeth, and salivary glands break down the substance. It then travels through the pharynx and esophagus into the stomach, where the stomach acid further breaks down the food (UXL Complete Health Resource). After that, the food travels through the small and large intestines where a majority of its nutrients are absorbed. The waste then exits through the end of the large intestine which is made up of the rectum and anus. After the teeth assist in chewing, food rolls over the tongue and reaches stomach through the esophagus within 8 seconds. General Tsoâs Chicken and Rice consist of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. However, carbohydrates are digested easily than the fats and proteins. After broken down in the stomach, most of the nutrients are absorbed from the small intestine, and it takes 6 to 8 hours to pass through small intestine. The remaining unabsorbed material, âmoves very slowly through the large intestine where the final absorption of water and other nutrients take placeâ (UXL Complete Health Resource). The parasympathetic nervous system encourages the food to move through the digestive tract and motivates digestion process. The sympathetic nervous system works against the parasympathetic nervous system by decreasing the contraction and relaxation of the digestive tract (Taylor). Mouth produces saliva, which contains amylase. Amylase is key in digesting carbohydrates. The stomach produces hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor, and mucus (Taylor). Hydrochloric acid kills the bacteria and other organisms that enter the stomach, and then continues to activate pepsinogen. Pepsinogen then changes into pepsin, which digests protein peptides. The pancreas produces trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, lipases, and phospholipases. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases digest proteins, whereas lipases, phospholipases digest lipid molecules. Small intestine produces lactase, sucrase, maltase, lipases, and peptidases. Lactase, sucrase, and maltase digest carbohydrates (UXL Complete Health Resource). Saliva glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are the accessory organs of the digestive process. Saliva glands produce mucus and amylase which digests starch into simple sugars and binds food particles together, while lubricating the palette when one swallows. The pancreas produces amylase, lipases, and proteinases etc. These digestive juices are responsible for breaking down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The liver is the largest gland in the body, âIt produces bile salts to emulsify lipids. It detoxifies metabolic end products to protect the bodyâ (UXL Complete Health Resource). Gallbladder stores bile juice. The chicken in the General Tsoâs contains proteins. Proteins cannot be digested in mouth. However, the mouth can physically digest chicken into smaller pieces. These partially digested chicken pieces travel to stomach, where it is digested by pepsin. The pancreas produces trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, lipases, and phospholipases (UXL Complete Health Resource). The chicken is then digested by trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases in the duodenum of the small intestine. After the complete digestion, the chickenâs proteins change into amino acids, which are then absorbed into blood. The rice of the General Tsoâs is a carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are partially digested inside the mouth by amylase. The rest of the rice travels to the stomach where it is digested by pancreatic juices and enzymes that are produced by small intestine. The digestion of the rice produces monosaccharides that absorb into the blood stream. The left over, and undigested parts of the chicken and rice that are useless to the body are excreted by large intestine through rectum.

1) Based on your finding in the Module 3 Report, begin the Module 4 Report by identifying which metabolites are being absorbed and specifically which vessels of the cardiovascular or lymphatic system are the initial vessel of transport from the digestive system. 2) From the point that the specific metabolites are absorbed from the GI tract, trace the path of the resulting metabolites to the following locations in the body for incorporation into the body structure: Metabolites of protein for use in the Gastrocnemius muscle for muscle maintenance. Metabolites of the carbohydrates for energy to contract the cardiac muscle cells. Metabolites of fat to incorporate into the myelin sheaths of the Schwann cells of the Trigeminal nerve that innervates the Masseter muscle. Water for incorporation into the synovial fluid of the hip joint. Iron for incorporation into red blood cells in the bone marrow of the sternum.

maroonguinea-pig686

Food that we consume is composed of very complex molecules. During the digestive process these compounds are broken down into smaller and smaller subunits in preparation for use by the body as building blocks needed for the many components of the human body. The digestion process begins at the mouth. Food enters and then accessory digestive organs like the tongue, teeth, and salivary glands break down the substance. It then travels through the pharynx and esophagus into the stomach, where the stomach acid further breaks down the food (UXL Complete Health Resource). After that, the food travels through the small and large intestines where a majority of its nutrients are absorbed. The waste then exits through the end of the large intestine which is made up of the rectum and anus. After the teeth assist in chewing, food rolls over the tongue and reaches stomach through the esophagus within 8 seconds. General Tsoâs Chicken and Rice consist of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. However, carbohydrates are digested easily than the fats and proteins. After broken down in the stomach, most of the nutrients are absorbed from the small intestine, and it takes 6 to 8 hours to pass through small intestine. The remaining unabsorbed material, âmoves very slowly through the large intestine where the final absorption of water and other nutrients take placeâ (UXL Complete Health Resource). The parasympathetic nervous system encourages the food to move through the digestive tract and motivates digestion process. The sympathetic nervous system works against the parasympathetic nervous system by decreasing the contraction and relaxation of the digestive tract (Taylor). Mouth produces saliva, which contains amylase. Amylase is key in digesting carbohydrates. The stomach produces hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor, and mucus (Taylor). Hydrochloric acid kills the bacteria and other organisms that enter the stomach, and then continues to activate pepsinogen. Pepsinogen then changes into pepsin, which digests protein peptides. The pancreas produces trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, lipases, and phospholipases. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases digest proteins, whereas lipases, phospholipases digest lipid molecules. Small intestine produces lactase, sucrase, maltase, lipases, and peptidases. Lactase, sucrase, and maltase digest carbohydrates (UXL Complete Health Resource). Saliva glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are the accessory organs of the digestive process. Saliva glands produce mucus and amylase which digests starch into simple sugars and binds food particles together, while lubricating the palette when one swallows. The pancreas produces amylase, lipases, and proteinases etc. These digestive juices are responsible for breaking down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The liver is the largest gland in the body, âIt produces bile salts to emulsify lipids. It detoxifies metabolic end products to protect the bodyâ (UXL Complete Health Resource). Gallbladder stores bile juice. The chicken in the General Tsoâs contains proteins. Proteins cannot be digested in mouth. However, the mouth can physically digest chicken into smaller pieces. These partially digested chicken pieces travel to stomach, where it is digested by pepsin. The pancreas produces trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases, lipases, and phospholipases (UXL Complete Health Resource). The chicken is then digested by trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidases in the duodenum of the small intestine. After the complete digestion, the chickenâs proteins change into amino acids, which are then absorbed into blood. The rice of the General Tsoâs is a carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are partially digested inside the mouth by amylase. The rest of the rice travels to the stomach where it is digested by pancreatic juices and enzymes that are produced by small intestine. The digestion of the rice produces monosaccharides that absorb into the blood stream. The left over, and undigested parts of the chicken and rice that are useless to the body are excreted by large intestine through rectum. 1) Based on your finding in the Module 3 Report, begin the Module 4 Report by identifying which metabolites are being absorbed and specifically which vessels of the cardiovascular or lymphatic system are the initial vessel of transport from the digestive system. 2) From the point that the specific metabolites are absorbed from the GI tract, trace the path of the resulting metabolites to the following locations in the body for incorporation into the body structure: Metabolites of protein for use in the Gastrocnemius muscle for muscle maintenance. Metabolites of the carbohydrates for energy to contract the cardiac muscle cells. Metabolites of fat to incorporate into the myelin sheaths of the Schwann cells of the Trigeminal nerve that innervates the Masseter muscle. Water for incorporation into the synovial fluid of the hip joint. Iron for incorporation into red blood cells in the bone marrow of the sternum.

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BIOL 1003 Lecture Notes - Lecture 1: Glycosidic Bond, Phosphodiester Bond, Carbohydrate Metabolism

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