PSYCH 3M03 Lecture Notes - Lecture 2: Inclusive Fitness, Sexual Selection, Emotion Classification
18 Jun 2018
School
Department
Course
Professor
Evolution of Motivation
You essentially have to do what you have to do in order to survive & pass your
genes on to other generations.
-
There are different reproductive strategies that one can adopt:
More offspring, little investment in each
§
Less offspring, greater investment in each = k-selection species = humans
§
-
Major Dimensions of Motivation
Survival
Thirst
Mammals seek out water to survive.
§
Stereotypical behaviours.
§
○
Hunger
Need food to survive, so we are motivated to seek out food.
§
○
Elimination
Need to be able to remove toxins from the body.
§
○
Temperature regulation
Important to maintain body temperature.
§
○
Pain & escape behaviour
You'll die if you don't get away from predators or pain.
§
○
Fear & avoidance
○
-
Reproduction
Courtship
○
Sexual behaviour
○
Pregnancy & nursing
○
Nurturance of offspring
○
Favouring kin
Relatedness
§
Share genetic components
§
○
-
Competition
Threat & aggression
○
Territoriality & dominance
○
-
Interaction of Motivations!
Motivations interact
-
E.g., Survival & reproduction (hunger vs reproductive preferences)
Resource security impacts men's female breast size preferences.
○
State of hunger you're in @ a specific time influences sexual preferences.
Hungry --> prefer larger breasts
§
Full --> prefer smaller breasts.
§
○
These changes happen within minutes or even hours based on your
physiology (hungry vs not).
○
IRL, men prefer larger individuals if from a resource insecure environment
(low SES).
○
-
Individual Selection
To evolve --> a gene needs to promote survival & reproduction.
Then, it needs to be passed on to further generations.
○
-
If the gene fails to promote survival & reproduction, individual likely dies before
reproduction & the gene is lost.
-
Kin Selection
Kin selection: an evolutionary process by which genes replicate indirectly via
expression that promotes reproduction of kin bearing copies of that gene.
-
Leads to nepotism:
Nepotism: the tendency to favour relatives over others.
○
-
A gene that helps kin survive & reproduce may not support individual's survival
& reproduction.
Even though the individual's genes are lost (death), kin will go onto
reproduce & therefore, their shared genes will be passed on via copies in
relatives.
○
-
Coefficient of Relatedness
Degree of relatedness determines the % of shared genes.
-
You can use a pedigree to figure out relatedness
-
Relationship r
MZ twins 1.0
DZ twins 0.5
Siblings 0.5
Parent-child 0.5
Half-siblings 0.25
Grandparent-child 0.25
First cousins 0.125
Second cousins 0.0625
Hamilton's Rule: rB > C
Nepotism can be evolutionarily favourable only if the gain in reproductive
success in the beneficiaries (kin) outweighs the loss in reproductive success of
the altruist.
-
rB > C for nepotism to evolve.
-
Example: Raise one grandchild over one son?
Grandchild = 0.25
○
Son = 0.5
○
0.25 < 0.5 therefore, should raise one son!
○
-
Example: Raise three nephews over one daughter?
2 nephews = (0.25)(3) = 0.75
○
1 daughter = 0.5
○
0.75 > 0.5 therefore, should raise three nephews!
○
-
Study: Madsen, Elainie et al (2007).
Presented a real cost towards the individual -- wanted to see if
relatedness of kin determined the cost you would incur.
○
Cost = wall sits
○
1 min of wall sit = $1.00 for a family member
○
Different person gets the money each day.
○
Results:
When people were getting money for self, held position for a
relatively long time.
§
Held wall sit pretty long for siblings, but not as much as for self.
§
By aunt/uncle/cousins, they stopped trying to hold wall sit.
§
○
Part II: What if the money went to a friend? Charity?
Charity -- same level as a cousin.
§
BFF -- same level as parent or sibling.
§
Why? Reciprocity! -- beneficial to you to give to someone who will
give to you in return.
§
○
-
Fitness
Fitness: individual reproductive success as measured by the number of offspring
that individual produces.
-
Inclusive fitness: direct fitness plus summated contributions of individual to
reproduction of kin as weighted by relatedness.
Better estimate.
○
-
Inclusive Fitness Maximization
Organisms bring their genes into future generations via:
Pre-reproductive self-preservation
○
Successful reproduction
○
Behaviour that helps kin with survival & reproduction
○
-
Genes that support survival, reproduction, & kin solicitude "work" to leave
copies of themselves in future generations.
-
Genes that do anything else generally tend to be eliminated.
-
Each new generation receives the subset of genes from the previous
generations that succeeded in survival & reproduction.
-
Sexual Selection
Sexual selection: mate choices that alter trait frequency over generations in the
opposite sex. This is often reflected in secondary sex characteristics.
-
E.g., Aggression in males
Usually, males will fight & the ones that don't have these traits get kicked
out & have their genes lost over time.
Therefore, the aggressive, larger, better males will win & their
genes will be passed on.
§
○
Males often fight for access to females.
E.g., elephant seals, deer-fox-rabbit-man, giraffes
§
○
-
Cuckoldry
Occurs in many species of fish
-
E.g.,
Large "parental" males
○
Small "cuckolder" or "parasitic" males
○
Parental males defend territories, attract females to lay their eggs.
○
Cuckolder males neither defend territories nor attract females, but
instead sneak in & inseminate female eggs right after she lays them in the
parental male territory.
○
Parental male often ends up raising the fish that are not his own offspring,
but instead belong to those of the cuckolder male.
○
-
Cultural Evolution
Changes in behaviour that occur over generations, & even within generations,
without genetic change.
-
Examples: learning, imitation, & language.
In complex species, especially humans, learning promotes behavioural
changes without genetic change.
○
-
Evolutionary Lag
Rapid cultural changes have occurred whereas genetic makeup changes very
slowly.
-
Occurs when demands of the environment severely outpace genetic change.
Therefore, the only way to keep up with demands of environment is to
learn from/copy those that are doing well at the time.
○
-
Example: sugar & salt
We're evolved to seek sugar & salt because they were not readily
available in prehistoric environments.
○
Now because of fast food, these are readily available in our environment.
○
So we have to change over behaviours to avoid diseases & health issues
despite our physiological dispositions.
○
-
Example: contraception
Males evolved to use the strategy of mating with multiple females to just
get their genes out there.
○
Now, because of contraception, males should not just try mating with
many women, because most women use contraception.
○
The likelihood of reproduction is lowered.
○
Better odds if you were to commit to one person.
○
-
Evolution of Emotions ---
Emotions:
Predispositions to react to life events.
-
Elicited by social & other environmental events & experiences.
-
Motivate or re-motivate behaviour.
-
Communicative as well as subjective.
-
Eg., Infant crying -- motivates & re-motivates parent, can be do to social
reactions or hunger, etc.
Communicative, but subjective to mother
○
-
Nature vs Nurture
Emotions are better explained by natural selection (evolution) than learning or
culture:
Culturally universal
○
Stereotyped
○
Observed in other species
○
Observed early in development
○
Elicited involuntarily
○
-
Learning, experience & culture modulate:
How emotions are expressed.
○
What is considered appropriate behaviour.
○
-
Basic emotions = nature
-
More complex emotions = nurture
-
Methods of Studying Emotions
Darwin -- focus on external, objective manifestations rather than subjective
experience.
Cross-species comparisons
○
Cross-cultural comparisons
○
Expression in infancy, throughout development
○
Expression in special populations
○
Physiological measures
○
-
Cross-species comparisons
Many similarities between the expression of happiness in primates &
humans both visually & physiologically.
○
Facial expressions of the macaque
Textbook figure 2-2
§
Open mouth = anger
§
Fear = teeth bared
§
○
Facial expressions of chimpanzees
Textbook figure 2-3
§
Hooting
§
○
-
Cross-cultural comparisons
Ekman et al.
Revisited Darwin's perspective & modern study of facial expressions
across cultures.
§
Found broad agreement on the labelling of facial expressions of
primary emotions, including fear, anger, happiness, sadness,
disgust, surprise.
§
Textbook Table 2-2
§
○
Ekman & Friesen
Studied interpretation of emotional faces in the fore of New
Guinea, who had not previously had contact with Western culture.
§
Observed nearly identical labelling of faces as seen in other
cultures.
§
Could also recreate these emotions easily.
§
○
-
Emotions over Development
Many emotions are evident in infancy
Crying at birth
○
Crying in response to distress
○
Smiling in response to mother's care
Babies born blind can still show smiles in response to care --
evidence that this is innate.
§
○
-
Chapter 2: The Evolution of Motivation & Emotion
Tuesday, January 16, 2018
9:34 PM
Evolution of Motivation
You essentially have to do what you have to do in order to survive & pass your
genes on to other generations.
-
There are different reproductive strategies that one can adopt:
More offspring, little investment in each
§
Less offspring, greater investment in each = k-selection species = humans
§
-
Major Dimensions of Motivation
Survival
Thirst
Mammals seek out water to survive.
§
Stereotypical behaviours.
§
○
Hunger
Need food to survive, so we are motivated to seek out food.
§
○
Elimination
Need to be able to remove toxins from the body.
§
○
Temperature regulation
Important to maintain body temperature.
§
○
Pain & escape behaviour
You'll die if you don't get away from predators or pain.
§
○
Fear & avoidance
○
-
Reproduction
Courtship
○
Sexual behaviour
○
Pregnancy & nursing
○
Nurturance of offspring
○
Favouring kin
Relatedness
§
Share genetic components
§
○
-
Competition
Threat & aggression
○
Territoriality & dominance
○
-
Interaction of Motivations!
Motivations interact
-
E.g., Survival & reproduction (hunger vs reproductive preferences)
Resource security impacts men's female breast size preferences.
○
State of hunger you're in @ a specific time influences sexual preferences.
Hungry --> prefer larger breasts
§
Full --> prefer smaller breasts.
§
○
These changes happen within minutes or even hours based on your
physiology (hungry vs not).
○
IRL, men prefer larger individuals if from a resource insecure environment
(low SES).
○
-
Individual Selection
To evolve --> a gene needs to promote survival & reproduction.
Then, it needs to be passed on to further generations.
○
-
If the gene fails to promote survival & reproduction, individual likely dies before
reproduction & the gene is lost.
-
Kin Selection
Kin selection: an evolutionary process by which genes replicate indirectly via
expression that promotes reproduction of kin bearing copies of that gene.
-
Leads to nepotism:
Nepotism: the tendency to favour relatives over others.
○
-
A gene that helps kin survive & reproduce may not support individual's survival
& reproduction.
Even though the individual's genes are lost (death), kin will go onto
reproduce & therefore, their shared genes will be passed on via copies in
relatives.
○
-
Coefficient of Relatedness
Degree of relatedness determines the % of shared genes.
-
You can use a pedigree to figure out relatedness
-
Relationship r
MZ twins 1.0
DZ twins 0.5
Siblings 0.5
Parent-child 0.5
Half-siblings 0.25
Grandparent-child 0.25
First cousins 0.125
Second cousins 0.0625
Hamilton's Rule: rB > C
Nepotism can be evolutionarily favourable only if the gain in reproductive
success in the beneficiaries (kin) outweighs the loss in reproductive success of
the altruist.
-
rB > C for nepotism to evolve.
-
Example: Raise one grandchild over one son?
Grandchild = 0.25
○
Son = 0.5
○
0.25 < 0.5 therefore, should raise one son!
○
-
Example: Raise three nephews over one daughter?
2 nephews = (0.25)(3) = 0.75
○
1 daughter = 0.5
○
0.75 > 0.5 therefore, should raise three nephews!
○
-
Study: Madsen, Elainie et al (2007).
Presented a real cost towards the individual -- wanted to see if
relatedness of kin determined the cost you would incur.
○
Cost = wall sits
○
1 min of wall sit = $1.00 for a family member
○
Different person gets the money each day.
○
Results:
When people were getting money for self, held position for a
relatively long time.
§
Held wall sit pretty long for siblings, but not as much as for self.
§
By aunt/uncle/cousins, they stopped trying to hold wall sit.
§
○
Part II: What if the money went to a friend? Charity?
Charity -- same level as a cousin.
§
BFF -- same level as parent or sibling.
§
Why? Reciprocity! -- beneficial to you to give to someone who will
give to you in return.
§
○
-
Fitness
Fitness: individual reproductive success as measured by the number of offspring
that individual produces.
-
Inclusive fitness: direct fitness plus summated contributions of individual to
reproduction of kin as weighted by relatedness.
Better estimate.
○
-
Inclusive Fitness Maximization
Organisms bring their genes into future generations via:
Pre-reproductive self-preservation
○
Successful reproduction
○
Behaviour that helps kin with survival & reproduction
○
-
Genes that support survival, reproduction, & kin solicitude "work" to leave
copies of themselves in future generations.
-
Genes that do anything else generally tend to be eliminated.
-
Each new generation receives the subset of genes from the previous
generations that succeeded in survival & reproduction.
-
Sexual Selection
Sexual selection: mate choices that alter trait frequency over generations in the
opposite sex. This is often reflected in secondary sex characteristics.
-
E.g., Aggression in males
Usually, males will fight & the ones that don't have these traits get kicked
out & have their genes lost over time.
Therefore, the aggressive, larger, better males will win & their
genes will be passed on.
§
○
Males often fight for access to females.
E.g., elephant seals, deer-fox-rabbit-man, giraffes
§
○
-
Cuckoldry
Occurs in many species of fish
-
E.g.,
Large "parental" males
○
Small "cuckolder" or "parasitic" males
○
Parental males defend territories, attract females to lay their eggs.
○
Cuckolder males neither defend territories nor attract females, but
instead sneak in & inseminate female eggs right after she lays them in the
parental male territory.
○
Parental male often ends up raising the fish that are not his own offspring,
but instead belong to those of the cuckolder male.
○
-
Cultural Evolution
Changes in behaviour that occur over generations, & even within generations,
without genetic change.
-
Examples: learning, imitation, & language.
In complex species, especially humans, learning promotes behavioural
changes without genetic change.
○
-
Evolutionary Lag
Rapid cultural changes have occurred whereas genetic makeup changes very
slowly.
-
Occurs when demands of the environment severely outpace genetic change.
Therefore, the only way to keep up with demands of environment is to
learn from/copy those that are doing well at the time.
○
-
Example: sugar & salt
We're evolved to seek sugar & salt because they were not readily
available in prehistoric environments.
○
Now because of fast food, these are readily available in our environment.
○
So we have to change over behaviours to avoid diseases & health issues
despite our physiological dispositions.
○
-
Example: contraception
Males evolved to use the strategy of mating with multiple females to just
get their genes out there.
○
Now, because of contraception, males should not just try mating with
many women, because most women use contraception.
○
The likelihood of reproduction is lowered.
○
Better odds if you were to commit to one person.
○
-
Evolution of Emotions ---
Emotions:
Predispositions to react to life events.
-
Elicited by social & other environmental events & experiences.
-
Motivate or re-motivate behaviour.
-
Communicative as well as subjective.
-
Eg., Infant crying -- motivates & re-motivates parent, can be do to social
reactions or hunger, etc.
Communicative, but subjective to mother
○
-
Nature vs Nurture
Emotions are better explained by natural selection (evolution) than learning or
culture:
Culturally universal
○
Stereotyped
○
Observed in other species
○
Observed early in development
○
Elicited involuntarily
○
-
Learning, experience & culture modulate:
How emotions are expressed.
○
What is considered appropriate behaviour.
○
-
Basic emotions = nature
-
More complex emotions = nurture
-
Methods of Studying Emotions
Darwin -- focus on external, objective manifestations rather than subjective
experience.
Cross-species comparisons
○
Cross-cultural comparisons
○
Expression in infancy, throughout development
○
Expression in special populations
○
Physiological measures
○
-
Cross-species comparisons
Many similarities between the expression of happiness in primates &
humans both visually & physiologically.
○
Facial expressions of the macaque
Textbook figure 2-2
§
Open mouth = anger
§
Fear = teeth bared
§
○
Facial expressions of chimpanzees
Textbook figure 2-3
§
Hooting
§
○
-
Cross-cultural comparisons
Ekman et al.
Revisited Darwin's perspective & modern study of facial expressions
across cultures.
§
Found broad agreement on the labelling of facial expressions of
primary emotions, including fear, anger, happiness, sadness,
disgust, surprise.
§
Textbook Table 2-2
§
○
Ekman & Friesen
Studied interpretation of emotional faces in the fore of New
Guinea, who had not previously had contact with Western culture.
§
Observed nearly identical labelling of faces as seen in other
cultures.
§
Could also recreate these emotions easily.
§
○
-
Emotions over Development
Many emotions are evident in infancy
Crying at birth
○
Crying in response to distress
○
Smiling in response to mother's care
Babies born blind can still show smiles in response to care --
evidence that this is innate.
§
○
-
Chapter 2: The Evolution of Motivation & Emotion
Tuesday, January 16, 2018
9:34 PM
Evolution of Motivation
You essentially have to do what you have to do in order to survive & pass your
genes on to other generations.
-
There are different reproductive strategies that one can adopt:
More offspring, little investment in each
§
Less offspring, greater investment in each = k-selection species = humans
§
-
Major Dimensions of Motivation
Survival
Thirst
Mammals seek out water to survive.
§
Stereotypical behaviours.
§
○
Hunger
Need food to survive, so we are motivated to seek out food.
§
○
Elimination
Need to be able to remove toxins from the body.
§
○
Temperature regulation
Important to maintain body temperature.
§
○
Pain & escape behaviour
You'll die if you don't get away from predators or pain.
§
○
Fear & avoidance
○
-
Reproduction
Courtship
○
Sexual behaviour
○
Pregnancy & nursing
○
Nurturance of offspring
○
Favouring kin
Relatedness
§
Share genetic components
§
○
-
Competition
Threat & aggression
○
Territoriality & dominance
○
-
Interaction of Motivations!
Motivations interact
-
E.g., Survival & reproduction (hunger vs reproductive preferences)
Resource security impacts men's female breast size preferences.
○
State of hunger you're in @ a specific time influences sexual preferences.
Hungry --> prefer larger breasts
§
Full --> prefer smaller breasts.
§
○
These changes happen within minutes or even hours based on your
physiology (hungry vs not).
○
IRL, men prefer larger individuals if from a resource insecure environment
(low SES).
○
-
Individual Selection
To evolve --> a gene needs to promote survival & reproduction.
Then, it needs to be passed on to further generations.
○
-
If the gene fails to promote survival & reproduction, individual likely dies before
reproduction & the gene is lost.
-
Kin Selection
Kin selection: an evolutionary process by which genes replicate indirectly via
expression that promotes reproduction of kin bearing copies of that gene.
-
Leads to nepotism:
Nepotism: the tendency to favour relatives over others.
○
-
A gene that helps kin survive & reproduce may not support individual's survival
& reproduction.
Even though the individual's genes are lost (death), kin will go onto
reproduce & therefore, their shared genes will be passed on via copies in
relatives.
○
-
Coefficient of Relatedness
Degree of relatedness determines the % of shared genes.
-
You can use a pedigree to figure out relatedness
-
Relationship
r
MZ twins
1.0
DZ twins 0.5
Siblings 0.5
Parent-child 0.5
Half-siblings 0.25
Grandparent-child 0.25
First cousins 0.125
Second cousins 0.0625
Hamilton's Rule: rB > C
Nepotism can be evolutionarily favourable only if the gain in reproductive
success in the beneficiaries (kin) outweighs the loss in reproductive success of
the altruist.
-
rB > C for nepotism to evolve.
-
Example: Raise one grandchild over one son?
Grandchild = 0.25
○
Son = 0.5
○
0.25 < 0.5 therefore, should raise one son!
○
-
Example: Raise three nephews over one daughter?
2 nephews = (0.25)(3) = 0.75
○
1 daughter = 0.5
○
0.75 > 0.5 therefore, should raise three nephews!
○
-
Study: Madsen, Elainie et al (2007).
Presented a real cost towards the individual -- wanted to see if
relatedness of kin determined the cost you would incur.
○
Cost = wall sits
○
1 min of wall sit = $1.00 for a family member
○
Different person gets the money each day.
○
Results:
When people were getting money for self, held position for a
relatively long time.
§
Held wall sit pretty long for siblings, but not as much as for self.
§
By aunt/uncle/cousins, they stopped trying to hold wall sit.
§
○
Part II: What if the money went to a friend? Charity?
Charity -- same level as a cousin.
§
BFF -- same level as parent or sibling.
§
Why? Reciprocity! -- beneficial to you to give to someone who will
give to you in return.
§
○
-
Fitness
Fitness: individual reproductive success as measured by the number of offspring
that individual produces.
-
Inclusive fitness: direct fitness plus summated contributions of individual to
reproduction of kin as weighted by relatedness.
Better estimate.
○
-
Inclusive Fitness Maximization
Organisms bring their genes into future generations via:
Pre-reproductive self-preservation
○
Successful reproduction
○
Behaviour that helps kin with survival & reproduction
○
-
Genes that support survival, reproduction, & kin solicitude "work" to leave
copies of themselves in future generations.
-
Genes that do anything else generally tend to be eliminated.
-
Each new generation receives the subset of genes from the previous
generations that succeeded in survival & reproduction.
-
Sexual Selection
Sexual selection: mate choices that alter trait frequency over generations in the
opposite sex. This is often reflected in secondary sex characteristics.
-
E.g., Aggression in males
Usually, males will fight & the ones that don't have these traits get kicked
out & have their genes lost over time.
Therefore, the aggressive, larger, better males will win & their
genes will be passed on.
§
○
Males often fight for access to females.
E.g., elephant seals, deer-fox-rabbit-man, giraffes
§
○
-
Cuckoldry
Occurs in many species of fish
-
E.g.,
Large "parental" males
○
Small "cuckolder" or "parasitic" males
○
Parental males defend territories, attract females to lay their eggs.
○
Cuckolder males neither defend territories nor attract females, but
instead sneak in & inseminate female eggs right after she lays them in the
parental male territory.
○
Parental male often ends up raising the fish that are not his own offspring,
but instead belong to those of the cuckolder male.
○
-
Cultural Evolution
Changes in behaviour that occur over generations, & even within generations,
without genetic change.
-
Examples: learning, imitation, & language.
In complex species, especially humans, learning promotes behavioural
changes without genetic change.
○
-
Evolutionary Lag
Rapid cultural changes have occurred whereas genetic makeup changes very
slowly.
-
Occurs when demands of the environment severely outpace genetic change.
Therefore, the only way to keep up with demands of environment is to
learn from/copy those that are doing well at the time.
○
-
Example: sugar & salt
We're evolved to seek sugar & salt because they were not readily
available in prehistoric environments.
○
Now because of fast food, these are readily available in our environment.
○
So we have to change over behaviours to avoid diseases & health issues
despite our physiological dispositions.
○
-
Example: contraception
Males evolved to use the strategy of mating with multiple females to just
get their genes out there.
○
Now, because of contraception, males should not just try mating with
many women, because most women use contraception.
○
The likelihood of reproduction is lowered.
○
Better odds if you were to commit to one person.
○
-
Evolution of Emotions ---
Emotions:
Predispositions to react to life events.
-
Elicited by social & other environmental events & experiences.
-
Motivate or re-motivate behaviour.
-
Communicative as well as subjective.
-
Eg., Infant crying -- motivates & re-motivates parent, can be do to social
reactions or hunger, etc.
Communicative, but subjective to mother
○
-
Nature vs Nurture
Emotions are better explained by natural selection (evolution) than learning or
culture:
Culturally universal
○
Stereotyped
○
Observed in other species
○
Observed early in development
○
Elicited involuntarily
○
-
Learning, experience & culture modulate:
How emotions are expressed.
○
What is considered appropriate behaviour.
○
-
Basic emotions = nature
-
More complex emotions = nurture
-
Methods of Studying Emotions
Darwin -- focus on external, objective manifestations rather than subjective
experience.
Cross-species comparisons
○
Cross-cultural comparisons
○
Expression in infancy, throughout development
○
Expression in special populations
○
Physiological measures
○
-
Cross-species comparisons
Many similarities between the expression of happiness in primates &
humans both visually & physiologically.
○
Facial expressions of the macaque
Textbook figure 2-2
§
Open mouth = anger
§
Fear = teeth bared
§
○
Facial expressions of chimpanzees
Textbook figure 2-3
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Hooting
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Cross-cultural comparisons
Ekman et al.
Revisited Darwin's perspective & modern study of facial expressions
across cultures.
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Found broad agreement on the labelling of facial expressions of
primary emotions, including fear, anger, happiness, sadness,
disgust, surprise.
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Textbook Table 2-2
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Ekman & Friesen
Studied interpretation of emotional faces in the fore of New
Guinea, who had not previously had contact with Western culture.
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Observed nearly identical labelling of faces as seen in other
cultures.
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Could also recreate these emotions easily.
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Emotions over Development
Many emotions are evident in infancy
Crying at birth
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Crying in response to distress
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Smiling in response to mother's care
Babies born blind can still show smiles in response to care --
evidence that this is innate.
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Chapter 2: The Evolution of Motivation & Emotion
Tuesday, January 16, 2018 9:34 PM
Document Summary
Chapter 2: the evolution of motivation & emotion. You essentially have to do what you have to do in order to survive & pass your genes on to other generations. There are different reproductive strategies that one can adopt: Less offspring, greater investment in each = k-selection species = humans. Need food to survive, so we are motivated to seek out food. Need to be able to remove toxins from the body. You"ll die if you don"t get away from predators or pain. E. g. , survival & reproduction (hunger vs reproductive preferences) Resource security impacts men"s female breast size preferences. State of hunger you"re in @ a specific time influences sexual preferences. These changes happen within minutes or even hours based on your physiology (hungry vs not). Irl, men prefer larger individuals if from a resource insecure environment (low ses). To evolve --> a gene needs to promote survival & reproduction. Then, it needs to be passed on to further generations.
