Psychology 1000 Lecture Notes - Lecture 2: Naturalistic Observation, Confirmation Bias, Operational Definition
4 Nov 2016
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HOW PSYCHOLOGIST DO RESEARCH
-key characteristics of the ideal scientist: 1. precision, 2. skepticism(not accepting others evidence), 3
reliance on empirical evidence, 4. willingness to make "risky predictions", 5 openness.
1) Precision
• Theory (building knowledge):organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to
explain phenomena and how they are related
• hypothesis (testing predictions) : statement that attempts to predict or account for a set of
phenomena; specifies relationships; empirically tested
• operational definition: define terms in hypotheses by the specifying the operations for observing
and measuring the process or phenomenon. e.g. anxiety
(theory+hunch), (hypothesis) , (predictions, with operational definitions), (evidence)
2) Skepticism
• Scientists do not accept ideas on faith or authority(need to be shown proof)
• Skepticism mean treating conclusions, both old and new, with caution (i.e keeping the
limitations of the study in mind)
• It is not about simply debunking some claim, but showing why the claim is invalid, so that a
better method can take place
• Caution must balance with skepticism balanced with openness to new ideas and evidence
3. Reliance on Empirical Evidence
• A scientist relies on empirical evidence to determine whether a hypothesis is true. (anecdote are
insufficient)
• Gathered through the use of various research methods
• Not judged by how pleasing or how entertaining, but by whether they fit our prejudices and
preferences
• Must eventually be backed by empirical evidence
• Helps scientist avoid the temptation to oversimplify
4. Willingness to Make Risky Predictions
• Principle of falsifiability: a scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to
disconfirm the theory.
• Forces scientist to "analyze assumptions and biases"
• Predicts not only what will happen but also what will not happen
• Confirmation bias: tendency to seek and accept evidence that supports our
theories/assumptions and ignore or reject evidence that contradicts beliefs
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5. Openness
• Scientist's willingness to explain the source of their ideas, how they tested them, and what the
results were.(enough clarity so study replication is possible)
• Peer review process ensures scientific standards and provides system of checks and balances
• Replication is a essential part of the scientific part because what seems to be fabulous
phenomenon turns out to be only a fluke
Descriptive Studies: Establishing the Facts
• Goal to describe and predict behaviour but does not allow casual explanations
• Gather evidence to support their hypotheses
• Representative sample: a group of participants that accurately represents the larger population
that the researcher is interested in
• Essential for all studies is obtaining a representative sample
• Descriptive methods: allow researchers to describe and predict behaviour but not necessarily to
choose one explanation over competing ones. (case studies, observational studies, psychological
tests, surveys) *almost all research has a descriptive element
Case Studies
• A detailed descriptions of a particular individual being studied or treated (e.g. counselling or
clinical psychology).
• Case studies illustrate psychological principals, and they produce a more detailed picture of an
individual than other methods do
• They are used as sources, rather than tests, of hypotheses to formulate broader research
• Most commonly used by clinicians: occasionally by researchers in preliminary stages of inquiry
Observational studies
• A method where researchers systematically observe and record behaviour without interference
• Involves many participants
• First step in a program of research
• Count, rate, or measure behaviour systematically, so others can check their observations
• Try to avoid being obvious about what they are doing so whoever is being observed can behave
naturally
• Naturalistic observation: observations of how people act in a typical social environment
• Laboratory observation: observations in a more controlled setting
• 8 month year olds tend to show signs of "separation anxiety" when parents leave them for short
period of time
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Psychological tests
• Sometimes called assessment instruments, are procedures used to measure and evaluate
personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, and values
• Psychological tests can be objective or projective
• Used to self promote self-understanding, to evaluate psychological treatments and programs, or
in scientific research
• Standardized: to measure a good test, and weather uniform procedures exist for giving and
scoring the test
• Norms: established standards of performance, given to large group of people who resemble the
population. They determine which scores are high, low or average
• Characteristics of a good test include: standardization, *reliability, *validity (know what they
are, and why are they important)
Reliability
• Is the consistency of scores derived from a test from on time and place to the next across
scorers
• Test-retest reliability: giving the test twice and compare the two sets
• Alternate forms reliability: giving different versions of the same test to the same group on two
separate occasions
Validity (judging a test)
the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure
-face validity,
content validity: represent the trait in question
Criterion validity: the ability to predict independent measures, or criteria, of the trait in question
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Document Summary
Laboratory observation: observations in a more controlled setting period of time. They determine which scores are high, low or average: characteristics of a good test include: standardization, *reliability, *validity (know what they are, and why are they important) Validity (judging a test) the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure. Face validity, content validity: represent the trait in question. Criterion validity: the ability to predict independent measures, or criteria, of the trait in question. Surveys: surveys are questionnaires and interviews that ask people about experiences, attitudes, or opinions (e. g. stress scale, allow for extensive data collection but many problems exist: It"s hard for researchers to know whether participates understand the instructions and the questions and are taking them seriously. Positive correlation: an association between increases in one variable and increases in another (and vis versa, rarely is a correlation perfect.
