PR 662 Lecture Notes - Lecture 75: Expectancy Theory

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periwinklemammoth360

23 Oct 2020

School

Ball State University

Department

Public Relations

Course

PR 662

Professor

Dr. Lee

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Document Summary

People will behave in ways that they perceive will get them desirable outcomes. Expectancy theory: the theory that motivation will be high when workers believe that high levels of effort lead to high performance and that high performance leads to the attainment of desired outcomes. Expectancy: a person"s perception about the extent to which effort (an input) results in a certain level of performance. Instrumentality: a person"s perception about the extent to which performance at a certain level results in the attainment of outcomes. Valence: how desirable each of the available outcomes from the job is to a person. Motivation will be high when workers believe: high levels of effort will lead to high performance, high performance will lead to the attainment of desired outcomes. Expectancy theory identifies three major factors that determine a person"s motivation: expectancy, valence. Expectancy: this is a person"s perception about how their effort will result in a certain performance level.

Related Questions

HELP! PLEASE HELP!!... The City of Ocelot was recently incorporated and is developing its administrative systems. A major motivation for creating the new city was the perception that the county commissioners had been less than enthusiastic about providing services to an area that tended to vote for their opponents. One pressing problem that requires immediate attention has been inadequate drainage. Unexpectedly high rainfall the last two years has generated large mosquito populations, and citizens have indicated a willingness to support taxation required for the construction of an expanded drainage system plus other measures to deal with the insects. Although the bulk of mosquito breeding occurs in the poorer parts of town, the wealthier areas are within the flight range of the insects. The population of Ocelot is about 30,000 with a range of incomes from very wealthy to about 10% of the population below the poverty level. Housing ranges from high-end homes and condominiums to publicly subsidized apartments. The ethnic distribution of the population is 65% Anglo-American, 15% Hispanic-American, 15% African-American, 3% Asian-American, and 2% Native American. The concept of public goods is frequently offered as a motivation for governmental operations. Discuss how the situation in the scenario illustrates demand for public goods, including the free-rider concept in relation to taxation. The discipline of public administration has traditionally called for separating policy from politics. Deborah Stone argues in The Policy Paradox that the ârationality projectâ has failed, but this view is not shared by Kraft & Furlong or Kettl. Discuss how politics will influence the development of the drainage project for the City of Ocelot, and relate the readings to the scenario. Which author(s) do you believe offers the most insightful representation of the forces involved in the scenario, and explain your answer? A group of citizens is calling for the new city to be run âlike a businessâ in the expectation this will lead to more efficient and effective delivery of services. Discuss the applicability of private sector techniques to the development of the drainage project for the city. In particular, what are some of the similarities and differences between the public and private sectors that will affect the project? One way to approach this may be to compare the constraints and incentives for Ocelot Director of Public Works Danny Velinski to those for Louis Sedgwick, CEO of a private sector construction company bidding for the contract. Two distinguished professors of organizational theory are eager to study the development of the new Cityâs administrative system. Dr. Virgil Hilts emphasizes systems theory in his analysis while Dr. Bob Hendley approaches organizations from the human relations school of thought. Discuss how each professor will approach operations in terms of the factors they will consider important in their analysis, and offer your view of the strengths and weaknesses of each approach. Which perspective do you believe offers greater explanation?

The opportunity cost of going to college is almost never discussed, yet it is quite high, so high that it is seriously impacting the broader American economy. For non-economists, âopportunity costâ is one of the most important concepts in economics. Because of scarcity we only have limited resources, and when we use those resources to do something like go to college, we cannot use them for other things that we also believe are desirable.

By far the most important resource we use in producing goods and services is labor or âhuman capital.â Based on what we pay owners of resources, we can say that roughly two-thirds of all production of goods and services is attributable to direct human effort â work. When kids go to college, they forego entering the labor force in a major, full-time manner. When six or seven percent of the entire American population is in college, that means a significant reduction in work effort occurs because otherwise highly productive persons in the physical prime of their lives are only lightly utilized in making things or providing services.

Today, only slightly over 59 of every 100 Americans of working age actually work, down from almost 66 in 2000. If we had the employment-population ratio of 15 years ago, we would have at least 16 million more working Americans today â an increase of over 10 percent. Our output would be probably the better part of a trillion dollars higher. The push for âcollege for allâ is one reason we have less work effort today (to be sure, the modern welfare state has also lowered work incentives a lot for other reasons).

The college for all crowd says higher education augments oneâs human capital, and we forego output today from working to bolster output tomorrow from more productive workers. And, no doubt, that is sometimes true. We have many productive engineers and accountants who gained important skills in college, for example. But is that necessarily true of all college graduates, particularly when Arum and Roksa tell us that graduating college seniors typically have only marginally better critical reasoning skills that freshman? And when over 40 percent of those entering four year colleges fail to graduate in six years? What if millions of those who do graduate take jobs similar to those without that college education? What if the debt incurred to pay for the college leads many to delay marrying, delay buying houses? There is evidence that to some extent the push for college has led to all of these unintended consequences.

The Federal Reserve Bank of New York has published great work showing that there is a very severe underemployment problem amongst college graduates, and other equally good research demonstrating what many of us have been saying for years: the student financial aid programs such as subsidized student loans, have pushed up the cost of college. Now a sister Federal Reserve Bank, namely Philadelphia, is jumping into the act.

The Philly Fed in a new study shows that high student loan debt is preventing young potential entrepreneurs from starting new businesses â they cannot afford the necessary debt. Opportunity cost again: if I borrow a lot to go to college, I cannot afford to borrow to start a business.

Enrollment in all forms of higher education today are up roughly 50 percent or seven million from what they were in 1990. What if enrollments had only risen proportionate to population growth â we would have three or four million fewer enrolled in college today. Would our nation be better or worse off? No one knows for sure, but the continued rise in the proportion of Americans with a college education has been accompanied by a sharp reduction in the rate of economic growth. I bet we would have fewer underemployed recent graduates. I bet we would have less than 17 percent delinquency rates on college loans, and far less than a trillion dollars in loan debt. I bet we would have a higher rate of labor force involvement and entrepreneurial activity among the young. And I bet we would be spending tens of billions less on higher education, and at least a little bit more on capital goods investment, highway construction, et cetera. In short, I suspect we would have been better off as a nation.

Richard Vedder directs the Center for College Affordability and Productivity, teaches at Ohio University, and is an Adjunct Scholar at the American Enterprise Institute.

Question :

This is a short article discussing the concept of opportunity cost and college. Provide your views on this topic.Do you agree/disagree with the article? Why? What are your thoughts on the current employment landscape of college graduates? Provide any insight on this topic on a specific industry, your own experience, or the experiences of people that you know who have already graduated.

magentalion418

Part II 1.The California Occupational Mortality study data set was employed to assess mortality data for the years 1979-1981. A 2% sample of employed persons from the 1980 census of California was used. It contains the occupation of each person who had died. This study, like any occupation-based study, is restricted to the work life span as far as age of subjects is concerned. This study used ages 16-64 years. Certain persons, because of their source of work, were excluded as subjects: homemakers, retired persons, students, disabled, military personnel, etc. Only main-stream-type employment was used in this study to establish occupations at risk for heavy alcohol drinking. Using the Table below, answer the following:

1.What occupations are most vulnerable to acquiring cirrhosis of the liver from heavy drinking?

2.List several of the occupations identified by the research studies that are more vulnerable to alcohol-induced, cirrhosis related deaths and that have the highest mortality rates.

3. What are possible confounding variables for the research in occupations and heavy drinking that lead to fatal diseases?

4. Based on available research data, develop and construct a web of causation along with the appropriate decision trees for occupational group-related alcohol deaths.

Table. Alcohol Related Deaths in California, 1979-1981 Cirrhosis 5.5% Digestive organ cancers 5.7% Injuries 13.7% Suicide and homicide 5.% All other causes 64.9% 2. Zika and microcephaly Since May 2015,

Brazil has experienced a significant outbreak of Zika virus. In recent years, Brazilian officials reported an increase in the number of babies born with microcephaly.

1. Briefly describe what we know and what we do not know about Zika virus.

2. What has been done and what should be done to prevent Zika virus epidemic in US and world-wide?

Multiple Choice

5. Which of the following statements describes the major advantages of a randomized clinical trial? a. It avoids observer bias b. It lends itself to ethical justification c. It yields results replicable in other patients d. It rules out self-selection of participants to the different treatment groups d. It enrolls representative patients

6. A survey conducted in England revealed that of 224 families in which there had been a known case of poliomyelitis, 56 maintained parakeets as a family pet. In another British survey, 30 out of 99 poliomyelitis patients questioned kept parakeets. The inference that there is some relationship between the presence of a parakeet in a household and the occurrence of poliomyelitis among household members is a. Correct b. Incorrect because of failure to distinguish between incidence and prevalence c. Incorrect because a proportionate ratio is used when a rate is required to support the inference d. Incorrect because a failure to recognize a possible cohort phenomenon e. Incorrect because there is no control or comparison group.

7. An investigator determines the correlation coefficient between triglyceride levels and degree of atherosclerosis in sampled blood vessels to be +1.67. On the basis of this you would conclude that: a. Triglyceride level is a good predictor of atherosclerosis b. Triglyceride level is not a good predictor of atherosclerosis c. High triglyceride levels cause atherosclerosis d. Atherosclerosis cause high triglyceride levels e. The investigator has incorrectly determined the correlation coefficient

8. A screening test of known sensitivity and specificity is applied to two populations. The prevalence of the disease being screened for is 10% in population A and is 1% in population B. Which of the following is true? a. The percent of all negative tests that have false-negative results is lower in population A than in population B. b. Specificity is lower in population A than in population B. c. Reliability is higher in population A than in population B. d. The percent of all positive tests that have false-positive results is lower in population A than in population B. e. Specificity is higher in population A than in population B.

9. Serum cholesterol levels are obtained for four healthy men. The probability that all will fall below the 10th percentile of the distribution of cholesterol for healthy males is: a. 0.4 b. 1 â (0.1)4 c. (0.1)4 d. (0.9)4 e. Cannot be determined from these data

10. In a diabetes screening program, the screening level for a positive blood sugar level in test 1 is set at 160 mg/dl, and in test 2 at 130 mg/dl. The sensitivity is: a. Greater in test 1 b. Greater in test 2 c. Equal in test 1 and 2 d. Dependent on the size of the population being evaluated

PR 662 Lecture Notes - Lecture 75: Expectancy Theory

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