PSY 1200 Lecture : Chapter 10
28 May 2023
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1 Exploring
Emotion
WHAT ARE
EMOTIONS?
For our purposes, we will define emotion as feeling, or affect, that occurs
when a person is in a state or an interaction that is important to him or
her, especially to his or her well-being. In infancy, emotions have
important roles in (1) communication with others and (2) behavioral
organization. Through emotions, infants communicate important aspects
of their lives such as joy, sadness, interest, and fear (Taylor & Workman,
2018). In terms of behavioral organization, emotions influence children’s
social responses and adaptive behavior as they interact with others in
their world (Denham & Bassett, 2019; Ekas, Braungart-Rieker, &
Messinger, 2018).
When we think about emotions, a few dramatic feelings such as rage or
glorious joy spring to mind. But emotions can be subtle as well, such as
uneasiness in a new situation or the contentment a mother feels when
she holds her baby. Psychologists classify the broad range of emotions in
many ways, but almost all classifications designate an emotion as either
positive or negative. Positive emotions include enthusiasm, joy, and love.
Negative emotions include anxiety, anger, guilt, and sadness.
developmental connection
Brain Development
The timing of maturation of the amygdala and prefrontal cortex
is linked to adolescent risk taking. Connect to “Physical
Development and Biological Aging.”
Emotions are influenced by biological foundations, cognitive processes,
and a person’s experiences (Cole & Hollenstein, 2018; Dollar & Calkins,
2019; Foroughe, 2018). Biology’s importance to emotion also is apparent
in the changes in a baby’s emotional capacities (Martin & others, 2017).
Certain regions of the brain that develop early in life (such as the brain
stem, hippocampus, and amygdala) play a role in distress, excitement,
and rage, and even infants display these emotions (van den Boomen,
Munsters, & Kemner 2018). But, as we discuss later in the chapter,
infants only gradually develop the ability to regulate their emotions, and
this ability is linked to the gradual maturation of frontal regions of the
cerebral cortex that can exert control over other areas of the brain (Bell,
Broomell, & Patton, 2018; Bell, Ross, & Patton, 2018).
Emotion regulation also can influence whether biological and
experiential factors are linked to various developmental outcomes. For
example, in G × E interaction, the short version of the serotonin
transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) is linked to increased risk of depression
when individuals often experience stressful environments. A study of 9-
to 15-year-olds who were characterized by this gene-environment
combination found that they were less likely to be depressed if they were
effective at emotion regulation (Ford & others, 2014).
Cognitive processes, both in immediate “in the moment” contexts and
across childhood development, influence children’s emotional
development (Bell, Diaz, & Liu, 2019). Attention toward or away from an
experience can influence children’s emotional responses. For example,
children who can distract themselves from a stressful encounter show a
lower level of negative affect in the context and less anxiety over time
(Crockenberg & Leerkes, 2006). Also, as children become older, they
develop cognitive strategies for controlling their emotions and become
more adept at modulating their emotional arousal (Perry & Calkins,
2018).
Page 311Social relationships provide the setting for the development of a
rich variety of emotions (Cole, Lougheed, & Ram, 2018; Dollar & Collins,
2019; Leerkes & Augustine, 2019; Morris & others, 2018; Perry &
Calkins, 2018). When toddlers hear their parents quarreling, they often
react with distress and inhibit their play. Well-functioning families make
each other laugh and may develop a light mood to defuse conflicts. A
study of 18- to 24-month-olds found that parents’ elicitation of talk
about emotions was associated with their toddlers’ sharing and helping
(Brownell & others, 2013). In another study of 10- to 12-year-olds,
mothers of more anxious children were more likely to engage in
psychologically controlling behavior intended to manipulate the
children’s emotional state, showed less warmth and interest in the
children, and elaborated less during conversations about an emotionally
negative event (Brumariu & Kerns, 2015).
Biological evolution has endowed human beings with the capacity to be
emotional, but cultural embeddedness and relationships with others
provide diversity in emotional experiences (Norona & Baker, 2017).
Emotional development and coping with stress are influenced by
whether caregivers have maltreated or neglected children and whether
children’s caregivers are depressed or not (Doyle & Cicchetti, 2018;
Jackson, 2019; Thompson, 2019). When infants become stressed, they
show better biological recovery from the stressors when their caregivers
engage in sensitive caregiving (Sullivan & Wilson, 2018).
How do Japanese mothers handle their infants’ and children’s emotional development
differently from non-Latina White mothers?
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