AFM280 Study Guide - Final Guide: Culture Change, Affective Forecasting, Leg Before Wicket
30 May 2018
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TEAM CHARACTERISTICS determine what a team is capable of achieving &, influences the strategies & processes the team used to reach its
goals. Pool complementary knowledge and skills. Types of Teams: 1) Work Team: permanent, high commitment, varying autonomy &
decision making (traditional vs self-managed teams) 2) Management Team: permanent team that participates in managerial level tasks-
affect entire org; coordinates activities of subunits to help org reach LT goal 3) Parallel Team: members from various jobs within org meet to
provide recommendations; part time 4) Project Team: one-time tasks, most tend to be complex + require input from members from different
functional areas; exist till project finished 5) Action Team: limited duration- complex tasks in contexts that tend to be highly visible and
challenging; sports/music teams. Virtual teams: geographically dispersed + efficient. 5 stages of team development: 1) Forming: Members
understand oudaies, hat’s epeted, ho i hage? 2) Storming: initial unwillingness to accommodate triggers conflict –affecting
interpersonal relationships & harms team's progress 3) Norming: Cooperate, feels of solidarity → accomplish goals. Norms & expectations
develop. 4) Performing: comfortable working within roles; team progresses toward goals 5) Adjourning: experience anxiety as they separate;
Developmental sequence less applicable when: (1) teas fored ith clear epectatios regardig hat’s epected fro the (2) Teams
that follow a pattern of development called punctuated equilibrium: At initial team meeting members make assumptions+ establish a
pattern of behavior that lasts fo fist / of life. patte otiues to doiate tea’s ehaio as it settles ito a sot of inertia and at the
midway point of the project, members realize they have to change their task paradigm fundamentally to complete on time. Team
Interdependence (ID): ways members of a team are linked to one another. Task ID: degree rely on other members for info & resource. (1)
Pooled ID: Lowest degree of coordination (do work separately, then combine); (2) Sequential ID: Different tasks are done in a prescribed
order, members specialize in tasks- only interact with those next in sequence- assembly line; (3) Reciprocal ID: Members are specialized to
perform specific tasks; members interact with subset of members; (4) Comprehensive ID: highest level of interaction + coordination,
everyone has discretion in terms of what they do + who they interact with; Level of task interdependence increases, members spend more
time comm + coordinating: decreased productivity; increases ability of team to adapt to new situations. Goal ID: Degree members have
shared goal & align individual goals with vision; high goal ID → team needs formal mission stmt (better if self-developed). Outcome ID: D2W
members share equally in feedback and rewards; so: high outcome ID (increase information shared)→ members depend on perf. of members
for rewards & low outcome ID→ individuals receive rewards/punishments based on own perf; High outcome ID→ high amount of info.
Shared Team Composition: Mix of various characteristics that describe individuals who work in team; Particularly effective team- team
seems to have right mix of abilities & personalities, + members are (1) capable of performing role responsibilities effectively (2) cooperate +
get along → Member Role: behavior a person is expected to display in a given context; presence/ absence of roles have strong impact on
team effectiveness (1) Team task roles- ehaios that failitate aoplishet of tasks oiete, deil’s adoate, eegize- nature of
work (2)Team building roles - ifluee ualit of tea’s soial liate Haoize, Encourager, Compromiser)- manage conflict (3)
Individualistic roles- Behaviors benefit individual at expense of team (Aggressor, Recognition seeker, Dominator)- damaging, foster negative
feelings, hinder ability to perform effectively . Member ability: Not ee ee eed leels of phsial o ogitie ailities, Disjunctive
tasks: member with highest level of ability relevant to task has most influence on effectiveness of team; Conjunctive tasks: tasks for which
tea’s perf. depends on abilities of weakest link; Additive tasks- member contributions add up to determine team perf. Member personality:
Agreeable people: oopeatie, tustig, pefe hao do’t offe itiis-> work in harmony, no accomplishment); Low
conscientiousness people-unmotivated → other dissatisfied members, time consuming conflicts and difficult for team to perform as
effectively; Extroverted people help social climate but too many can result in too much dominance; all result in power struggles and
unproductive conflict. Team diversity (TD): D2W members are different from one another; Value in Diversity Problem-Solving Approach:
supports TD because it provides a larger pool of knowledge and perspectives; Similarity-attraction Approach: TD can be CP→people tend to
avoid interacting w/ others who are unlike them to reduce disagreements; Surface-level diversity: Diversity of observable attributes (race,
sex, age)- can have -ve impact on teams in early stages but improve after learning; Deep-level diversity: inferred through observation
(differences in attitudes, values, personality, communication)- discovered after which reduces effectiveness (but not problematic for
aggregable + extroverted ppl). Team size: larger teams- beneficial for mgmt + project teams (complex work - extra resources + expertise
needed) BUT NOT for production teams (routine tasks = unnecessary coordination & comm. problems + socializing). Team Processes &
Comm. reflects different types of communication, activities, & interactions that occur within teams that contribute to their end goal; Team
characteristics affect team processes and communication and have strong impact on team effectiveness. Why are some teams > sum of
parts? Process gain: Team outcomes > expected based on capabilities of individuals (critical when high task complexity); Process loss: team
outcomes are < expected in view of capabilities of individuals- b/c of coordination loss (time & energy spent coordinating and not on task),
result of production blocking (wait on another to do your part), also be result of motivation loss- do’t ok as had as the ould reasons:
some contributions less obvious; uncertainty regarding who contributes what, less accountability→ social loafing). (1) Taskwork processes:
Activities that relate directly to accomplishment of team tasks; 3 types of taskwork processes: (1) Creative behavior- driven by creativity of
employee + team environment; Brainstorming fosters creativity; rarely works- better coming up with ideas on own & then come together
(a) tendency for people to social loaf (b) hesitant to express incomplete ideas (c) results in production blocking. Nominal group technique:
write ideas on own time → present in round-robin fashion → clarify and vote. (2) Decision making- better effectives cuz more complete info,
diversity of views, decision quality, accuracy, creativity, degree of acceptance; Factors to make effective decisions: Decision Informity: do
members possess adequate info. about own task responsibilities; Staff validity: D2W member make good recommendations to leader;
Hierarchical sensitivity- D2W leader effectively weighs recommendations (makes better decision on own, no pressure) (3) Boundary
spanning- Involves 3 activities: Ambassador: communications intended to protect team, persuade other to support team/obtain resources
(report higher up); Task coordination: communications intended to coordinate task related issues w/ those in different areas; Scout
activities- get info on tech, competitors, marketplace. (2) Teamwork processes: Interpersonal activities that promotes a setting to do task
work; (1)Transition processes: teamwork activities that focus on preparation for future work(mission analysis, strategy formulation & goal
specification); (2) Action Processes: monitoring progress throughout (systems monitoring, helping behavior, coordination- synchronizing
team members to mech effectively) (3) Interpersonal processes: focus on mgmt of relationships among members before during and after;
Motivating and confidence building-things teams do/say that affect member motivation; Conflict management- activities team uses to
manage conflicts (relationship conflict→ bad, task conflict→ sometimes good when there is TRUST) What does effective conflict
management involve?; focus on team mission→ no self-interest; members need to discuss positions openly & exchange info in a way that
fosters collaborative problem solving. (3) Communication: Process by Structure- pattern of comm. that occurs regularly amongst each
member of team; centralized (simple aka wheel) vs. decentralized (complex aka all-channel) structure- members prefer decentralized- want
to be in the loop. [[Barriers to Comm – filtering, selective perception/ confirmation bias, defensiveness, emotions, information overload,
language, silence → lead to psychological stress, non-verbal comm. (body lang.), close talker. Cultural Barriers to Comm. - High-context
cultures = heavy non-verbal and subtle cues comm., low-context cultures = convey through words. How Imp. Is Comm? Supervisor Feedback:
+ve effect on JP when complex tasks & feedback is combined with other perfwhich info & meaning is transferred from sender to receive,
VERBEL or NON VERBEL. Comm process influenced by: (1) Communicator competence (ability to encode, transmit & receive) (2) Gender
differences (Male- communicate to achieve power, status, independence. Female- communicate to build relationship. Misunderstandings/
faulty inferences) (3) Noise -increases effort communicators need to exert to make comm. work (4) Information richness- amount & depth
of info that gets transmitted. (1v1 vs. computer generated) (5) Network. mgmt. intervention (e.g. goal setting); +ve effect on OC affective
& normative, weaker on Continuance)]]. (4) Team states: Specific types of feelings & thoughts that coalesce in minds of team members as
a consequence of working together; Cohesion- occurs when members develop strong emotional bonds → avoid groupthink- overconfidence
about team ability. Potency- high potency = members confident that team can perform well across various situations → more energy to
achieve goals. Have confident in themselves and others. Mental models- DW tea ees hae shaed udestadig of oe aothe’s
capabilities & needs/ help. Know who to go for help. Transactive Memory- members understand own specialized knowledge & how it should
be combined with knowledge of other members. Improve team process – Transportable Teamwork Competencies, Cross-Training, Team
Process Training, Team Building. Effect on JP & OC: High task interdependence → +ve team perf. with complex work only, weak effect on
team commitment, with more complex work. Teamwork process→ +ve effect on team perf when more complex., interpersonal activities
build team confidence and +ve team climate (higher if high task ID); strong +ve relationship with team commitment (affective, CB).
Application: High Outcome ID = high cooperation = reduce motivation with high perf ppl so compensation, math with level of Task ID.
LEADERSHIP: use of power & influence to direct activities of followers toward goal achievement; Leader can be judged by
objective evaluations of unit performance (ROI, profit margin, quality) Or based on followers (absenteeism, retention,
transfer requests); Leader-member exchange theory (LEMT): how leader-member relationships develop over time on a
dyadic basis, argues that new LM relationships are marked by (1) Role taking phase (leader provides employee with job
expectation & follower tries to meet expectations); (2) Role making: follower voices own expectations for relationship =
free-flowing exchange of opportunities & resources for activities & effort; 2 types of leader-member dyads: (1)High-quality
–exchange (ingroup) dyad- frequent one-on-one exchanges of info between leader & member, mutual influence, support
& attention (high levels of comm, trust, respect, obligation) (2)Low-quality-exchange (outgroup) dyad- limited exchange
of info, influence, attitude, support and attention (low levels of above); LMET suggests that employees competent + similar
to leader will be in ingroup AND judgement of leader effectiveness should gauge how effective most critical leader member
dyads appear to be (more agreement → higher-quality-exchange relationship AND higher levels of leader effectiveness
AND high CB. Why are some leader more effective? Leader effectiveness: DW leade’s atios esult i ahieeet of
uit’s goals, otiued oitet of uit’s eploees, deelopet of tust, espet + oligatio i LM dads; Taits
more predictive of leader emergence (process of becoming leader) than of leader effectiveness (how well people do in a
leadership role. Leader decision-making styles: capture how a leader decides HIGH LEADER CONTROL(1) Autocratic style-
leader makes decision w/o asking employees in work unit for opinions, they might not be told about decision
(2)Consultative style- leader presents problem to employees asking for suggestions before making decision himself
(3)Facilitative style- leader presents problem to group of employees + seeks consensus on solution→own opinion receives
same weight (facilitator) (4)Delegative style- leader gives employees responsibilities for making decision within some set
of specified boundary conditions; leader plays no role in deliberations, but can offer encouragement HIGH FOLLOWER
CONTROL; Alloig eploees to participate i decisio akig JS + develops decision making skills; Time-driven model
of leadership- 7 factors e.g. decision signif. Importance of commit. Leader expertise. Autocratic- decisions that are
insignificant or decisis for which employee commitment is unimportant; Delegative- employees have strong teamwork skills
ad ae’t likel to oit to deisio leader; Consultative + facilitative: consider all factors. Autocratic ana facilitative
underused. Daily leadership behaviors: (A) Initiating Structure- leader defines + structures roles in pursuit of goal
attainment → Initiation, Organization, Production; high on initiating structure→ active role in directing group activities and
prioritize planning; emphasize meeting deadlines, discuss performance standards, criticize poor work (B)Consideration-
leader creates job relationships characterized by trust, respect for employee ideas & consideration of feelings→
Membership, integration, communication, recognition, representation- high on consideration→ create climate of good
rapport + strong comm, concern for employee well-being, do personal favors + listen to employees; Initiating structure +
consideration are independent; Consideration +ve relationship w/ leader effectiveness, motivation + JS AND w/ overall unit
performance (OUP); Initiating structure +ve relationship with motivation & positive relationship w/ leader effectiveness, JS
+ OUP; Life cycle theory of (situational model) leadership- optimal combination of initiating structure & consideration
depends on readiness of employees→ Readiness: D2W employees have ability and willingness to accomplish specific tasks;
R1- employees working together for first time, eager but inexperienced -Telling: high IS and low C→ leader provides
specific instructions& closely supervises performance. R2- members begin working together and find work harder than
expected -Selling: high IS and high C→ leader provides direction with support to protect confidence levels of employees;
as employees gain ability, guidance is less necessary. R3- learned to work well together, but still need support from leader
to help adjust to self-managed state -Participating- low IS and high C- leader shares ideas and tries to help group conduct
affairs R4- readiness level is delegating- low IS and low C→ leader turns responsibility for key behaviors to employees (only
some degree of observation + monitoring from leader); readiness in higher
→
leader behaviors matter less. MIX of T&T (1)
Laissez-faire- avoids leadership duties- actions delayed, responsibility is ignored, power & influence go unutilized (2)
Transaction leadership- leader rewards or disciplines follower on basis of perf. → Passive mgmt. by exception: leader takes
no action until complaints are received. Active mgmt by exception: leader arranges to monitor mistakes/errors actively,
directs attention toward failures to meet standards. Contingent reward: leader says what one can expect to receive when
perf. goals are achieve; Contingent reward strongly related to follower motivation + leader effectiveness; Active mgmt-
by-exception weakly related and Passive mgmt-by-exception harms outcomes; (3)Transformational leadership - leader
inspires followers to commit to shared vision, providing meaning to their work + serve as role model who helps followers
develop own potential and view problems from new perspectives; what gets transformed is way followers view their work
(focus on collective good); motivational: (1)Idealized influence- leader behaves in way that earns admiration, trust, respect
of follower. Wish to identify. Charisma. (2) Inspirational motivation- LBW that fosters enthusiasm & commitment to shared
vision (3)Intellectual simulation- LBW that help followers be innovative by questioning assumptions & reframing situations
(4)Individualized consideration-LBW that help followers achieve potential by coaching, development, mentoring. How Imp.
Is TL? Employees have higher levels of TP and high CB cuz of ^ levels of motivation, psychological empowerment, ^ trust (so
willing to work harder) higher OC (affective, normative), higher levels of JS (variety+ significance→ intrinsic satisfaction),
feel more optimism due to emotional contagion; Substitutes for leadership model: characteristics of situation can constrain
influence of leader, difficult for leader to influence perf. Substitute – reduces imp. & improve employee perf. (feedback,
training, professionalism, staff support, group cohesion, intrinsic satisfaction. Neutralizer - reduces imp. BUT NOT improve
perf. (task stability, formalization, inflexibility, spatial distance). Application – leader training, programs for TL.
POWER: influence behavior + resist unwanted influence; Types of Power: (1) Organizational power- derived from position
of authority (1) Legitimate power- based on authority/position (2) Reward P- Based on control of resources & rewards (3)
Coercive P- influence decisions by taking something away as punishment -FEAR (poor form) (2) Personal power (1)Expert
P- based on expertise/ knowledge (track record) (2)Referent P- based on attractiveness + charisma of leader; Personal forms
more strongly related to OC + JP. Contingencies of power: factors affect ability to use power to influence. (1)
Substitutability: # of alternatives to accessing resources (2) Discretion: D2W individuals have decision making rights (3)
Centrality: importance of job + how many people depend on person to finish tasks (4) Visibility: aaeess of idiiduals’
position + resources. Influence: Use of behaviors to cause behavioral/attitudinal change in others; (1)directional (downward,
lateral, upward) (2) Relative. Tactics to influence: MOST Eff (1) Rational persuasion: use of logical arguments + facts to
show target that request is worthwhile. Successful with upward influence (2) Consultation: Target allowed to participate in
deciding how to implement request; increases commit (3) Inspirational appeal: Appeals to oe’s alues & beliefs, creating
emotional reaction; influencer must have insight into targets wants (4) Collaboration: leader makes it easier for target to
complete request by offering to work with + help target. MODERATE Eff (1) Ingratiation: use of favors, compliments to make
target feel better about influencer (sucking up) (2) Personal appeals- based on personal friendship (3) Exchange tactic:
offers a reward to target in return for perf. (4) Apprising: requestor clearly explains why performing request will benefit
target; results from action. LEAST Eff: (1) Pressure: requestor uses coercive power with threats and demand (2) Coalitions-
Influencer enlists others to help influence target (peers, superiors); 2 points about tactics: (1) most successful when used in
combination w/ other tactics (2) Tactics that are softer in nature tend to be more successful (first 4 take adv. of personal
power); Ensure tactics they use match type of power they have; Responses to influence tactics: (1) Internalization: target
agrees & becomes committed to request (employees put greatest level of effort; shift in behaviors + attitude) (2)
Compliance- target willing to do what leader asks, but with indifference (change behavior NOT attitude) (3)Resistance-
target refuses to perform request & avoids doing it (making excuses, refusal, because influencers power is low or request is
unreasonable) 4 areas to use power to influence others: (1) Achieve org. goals (2) Navigating OP (3) Conflict resolution (4)
Negotiate outcomes (1) Organizational politics (OP): Individual actions to further self-interest (Can be seen as detrimental
to others, effective leaders push ideas through use of OP); Political skill: Ability to understand others& use that knowledge
to influence them to further personal organizational objectives; 2 aspects are(1) Networking ability- identify & develop
contacts (2) Social astuteness- tendency to observe others& interpret their behavior; Political skill has 2 capabilities: (1)
Interpersonal influence- haig a uassuig ad oiig pesoal stle that’s fleile eough to adapt (2) Apparent
sincerity- Appearing to have high levels of honesty& genuineness; Extremely political environments ause JS, stain,
JP & OC among employees. Org+ leaders need to minimize perceptions of self-serving behaviors associated with OP. OP is
driven by: (1) Personal Char. (a) Strong need for power = incentive to engage in political beh. (b) High in self-monitoring =
tendency to be closely guarded in their actions (c) Machiavellianism tendencies = wiling to manipulate & deceive to get
power (2) Organizational Char. → Increase in OP when uncertainty increases → want to reduce uncertainty CAUSED by:
(a) limited/changing resources (b) ambiguity in roles (c) high perf. pressure (d) unclear perf. evals. (2) Conflict resolution: 5
approaches to handle conflict, combination of two factors (A) Assertiveness (B) Cooperation: (1) Competing- asset,
oop get o goals et ithout oe fo esults - one party has high levels of Power and can use legitimate/ coercive
power to settle conflict: used when leade knows he’s ight + uik deision needed (2) Avoiding: asset, oop he
one party wants to remain neutral/ postpone conflict to gather info/ let things cool down- results in unfavorable outcomes
+ negative feelings- never solve conflict (3) Accommodating: asset, oophe oe pat gies in and acts in an
unselfish way; use when issue is not important to them but is to other party; when individual has less power than the other,
better for LT; when you know you wrong (4) Collaboration: asset oop- both parties work together to max outcomes-
most effective form + most difficult(requires full sharing of info, equal power, lot of time); when your objective is to learn.
(5) Compromise: (mod assert, mod coop) conflict is resolved in a process of give-and-take- losses are offset by gains & easy
form that maintains relations + results in good evals for leader; achieve tempo settlement; arrive under time pressure.
Negotiation Strategies: (1) Distributive bargaining- win-lose negotiating oe fied-pie of esoues → one person gains,
other loses; similar to competing (2) Integrative bargaining- win-win use of problem solving & mutual respect (understand
collaboration
→
likely to thrive in this type)- preferred- allows LT relationship to form & produces high level of outcome
favorability- use when multiple outcomes and adequate level of trust & parties are flexible. Negotiation Stages: (1)
Preparation (most important)- determine goals for negotiation& whether other party has anything to offer and determine
best alternative (2) Exchanging information- each party makes case for its position& attempts to put all favorable info.
(3)Bargaining- goal: each party walks away feeling like it has gained (4)Closing & commitment- formalizing an agreement
reached during previous stag; if issue exist, redo all. Effect on JP and OC. +ve effect on JP → create internalization in workers
so they focus on TP + helps create CB + increase motivation. +ve effect on OC → personal sources of power create strong
emotional bond AC, + JS & trust in leader. Repeated use of coercie poer or reliace o hard ifluece tactics ca OC.
Speed up SOC for newcomers (1) Realistic job preview- reduce reality shock, (2) Orientation program → ^ satisfaction,
commit & perf., (3) Mentoring
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE(OC). Facets of OC: (1) Culture is social knowledge (2)Culture tells employees what rules, norms, values are in
an org (3)OC shapes & reinforces employee attitudes + behaviors; Components of Culture: (1) Observable Artifacts- aspects of OC that
employees (&outsiders) can see or talk about; Let employee know how to act. (A)Symbols (B)Physical Structure (C)Language (D)Stories
(E)Rituals (F)Ceremonies (2)Espoused values: beliefs, philosophies& norms org explicitly states (different from enacted values, saying vs
acting) (3)Basic underlying assumption- hidden beliefs most likely to dictate employee behavior + affect employee attitudes (long-lasting +
difficult to change). General Culture Types: Solidarity(SOL): how members think & act alike (hard in larger groups); Sociability(SOC): how
friendly employees are to each other. Fragmented culture ( SOL & SOC): employees are distant + disconnected to each other. Mercenary
culture “OL “OC - eploees thik alike, ae’t fiedl Networked culture “OL, “OC: fiedl to oe aothe, ut eeoe thiks
differently. Communal culture “OL & SOC): friendly employees who all think alike. Specific C: Customer service culture- focuses on quality.
Service oriented leadership behavior→ service culture → service oriented employee behaviors →customer satisfaction → unit sales. Safety
culture: level of safety-related awareness and behaviors, lower accidents (trainin) Diversity culture-focused on fostering of a diverse group
for talent/innova. Creativity Culture: foster creative atmosphere (affects quantity + quality of creative ideas). Culture Strength: Strong
culture: employees agree about the way things are supposed to happen = high consensus and when their subsequent behaviors are
consistent with expectations = high intensity (Adv. Differentiate, stability, identify, facilitates desired beh. disadv. Adapt, no diverse, merging
hard) Weak culture (opposite). Subcultures -overall org culture is supplemented by another culture governing a more specific set of
employees; more likely to exist in large organizations; useful when different demands + needs; Counterculture- subculture whose values do
not match those of org: challenge views and signify need for change. Differentiated Culture- OC split down the middle Maintaining OC:
two processes to keep strong culture when hiring: (1)Attraction-Selection-Attrition: employees will be drawn to org with cultures that match
personality, org will select employees that match,& employees will leave/forced out if not good fit (2)Socialization- processes by which
employees learn social knowledge to understand& adapt to OC- 6 dimensions: Performance proficiency: knowledge of role + tasks
Language: acronyms, slang History: traditions, customs Politics: formal& informal work relationships + power structures. People: successful
relationships. Goals/values: adoption of goals and values 3 stages of socialization: (1)Anticipatory stage-begins as soon as potential
employee develops image on what it would be like to work for company (info. from recruitment + selection process) (2) Encounter stage-
begins the day employee starts work, employee compares info. as an outsider to information learned as an insider; Reality shock: mismatch
of info that occurs when employee finds that working at company are not as expected→ want to minimize (3) Understanding & Adoption:
newcomers learn content areas of socialization & internalize norms & expected behaviors → employee has adapted goals & values of the
org; gets along with other employees → this stage never ending. Stronger cultures = more easily understandable. Change Process–
(1)Unfreeze– when status quo unacceptable, low employee morale. (2)Change Initiative– bring new leader, new reward system, new
training program. (3)Refreeze– entrench new attitudes and beh. 2 Issues to overcome– (1) Diagnose underlying problem (2) Resistance ppl
like habits, difficult to adopt new ways. Culture change as a result of: (1) Changes in Leadership (2) Mergers & acq. – cannot know which
culture will be main one. Culture on JP & TP. Person-org fit weak +ve on JP, TP, CitizenB; ^trust, lower stress; +ve OC (Affective). ----->
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