PSYC 2500H Chapter Notes - Chapter 14: Arapesh Languages, Scrotum, Oedipus Complex
26 Jun 2018
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Defining Sex and Gender
oSex: refers to biological identity
oGender: refers to social and cultural identity as male/female
oAll societies expect males and females to behave differently and to assume
different roles
oGender typing: process by which a child becomes aware of his/her gender and
acquires motives, values, and behaviours considered appropriate for members of
that sex
Categorizing Males and Females: Gender-Role Standards
oGender role standard: behaviour, value, or motive that members of a society
consider more typical or appropriate for members of one sex
oDescribes expectations
oFemales role as child bearer is largely responsible for the gender-role standards
and stereotypes
oGirls are encouraged to have an expressive role
oExpressive role: social prescription, usually directed toward females, that
one should be cooperative, kind, nurturing, and sensitive to the needs of
others
oPrepares girls to play the wife and mother roles
oBoys are encouraged to have an instrumental role
oInstrumental role: social prescription, usually directed towards males,
that one should be dominant, independent, assertive, competitive, and
goal-oriented
oPrepares boys to play the husband and father roles
oSimilar norms and role prescriptions are found in many but not all societies
oChildren from industrialised societies and children from non-industrialised
societies face different gender-typing pressures
oBarry and colleagues – attributes are encouraged for both boys and girls but with
different emphasis depending on sex of the child
oFirst goal of socialization is to encourage children to acquire traits that will
enable being well-behaved/become contributing members of society
oSecond goal is to gender-type the child by stressing the importance of expressive
or instrumental attributes
oSome changes in direction of a more egalitarian gender roles and norms has
occurred but young people still endorse many traditional stereotypes about men
and women
Some Facts and Fictions about Sex Differences
oActual Psychological Differences Between the Sexes
oEleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin concluded few traditional gender
stereotypes have any basis of fact
oVerbal Ability
oGirls have greater verbal abilities than boys
oGirls acquires language/develop verbal skills earlier than boys
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oDisplay consistent verbal advantage on tests of reading,
comprehension and speech fluency throughout early life
oVisual/Spatial Ability
oBoys outperform girls on tests of visual/spatial abilities
oVisual/spatial abilities: abilities to mentally manipulate or
otherwise draw inferences about pictorial information
oMale advantage of spatial abilities can be seen throughout the
lifetime
oMathematical Ability
oBoys show a small but consistent advantage over girls on tests of
arithmetic reasoning
oGirls actually exceed boys in computational skills and earn higher grades
in math
oGirls are more inclined to adopt learning goals opposed to performance
goals
oBoys feel more confident in math skills than girls
oSex differences in visual/spatial abilities and the problem solving
strategies they support contribute to sex differences in arithmetical
reasoning
oJim Duffy – social forces come into play
oAggression
oBoys are more physically and verbally aggressive than girls
oGirls are more likely to display covert forms of hostility toward
others by snubbing or ignoring them or trying to undermine their
relationships or social status
oBoys are more likely to engage in antisocial and violent behaviours
oEvident in crime statistics
oOther Possible Sex Differences
oMaccoby and Jacklin’s review – believe they underestimated the
number of sex differences that exist
oActivity Level
oBoys are more physically active than girls
oRemain more active throughout childhood and while
interacting with peers
oHeightened activity boys display may help to explain why
they are more likely to initiate and be receptive to bouts of
nonaggressive, rough and tumble play
oFear, Timidity, and Risk-Taking
oGirls appear to be more fearful/timid in uncertain
situations – also more cautious and less assertive in these
situations, taking fewer risks
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oSex differences in risk-taking may stem from boys’
heightened activity levels – parental responses to risk-
taking are important
oDevelopmental Vulnerability
oBoys are more physically vulnerable than girls to prenatal
and perinatal hazards and to the effects of disease
oBoys more likely to display a variety of developmental
problems
oEmotional Expressivity/Sensitivity
oAs infants boys and girls do not differ much in their
displays of emotion
oBoys are more likely to display anger mostly starting as a
toddler
oGirls are more likely to display most other emotions
starting as a toddler
oSocial support for reflecting on feelings may help to
explain why girls/women characterise their emotions as
deeper/more intense – why they feel freer to express
them (parents talk more with daughters about
emotions/memorable emotional events)
oGirls/women rate themselves as more
nurturing/empathetic
oBoys often appear no less empathetic/compassionate than
girls
oCompliance
oGirls are more compliant with the requests and demands
of adults/authority figures
oGirls more likely to rely on tact/polite solutions when
trying to persuade/comply with others
oBoys are more likely to resort to demanding and
controlling strategies when trying to persuade/comply
with others
oSelf-Esteem
oBoys show a slight advantage over girls in global self-
esteem
oConclusions
oFindings imply that most sex differences are not biologically
inevitable and that culture/other social influences play an
important role in development of males/females
oMost developmentalists can agree – males and females are far
more psychologically similar than they are different – even most
well-documented differences seem to be modest
oCultural Myths
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Document Summary
More inclined to conform to social prescriptions of the female role: homes with egalitarian sex-role attitudes have less gender- stereotyped children in regards to their beliefs about activities/occupations for male/females, gender role development proceeds at fast pace. Ability to discriminate males from females emerges and improves. Child accurately labels the self as a boy/girl. Conservation of gender (recognition that one"s gender is unchanging) Gender stereotyping of interests, activities, and occupations becomes quite rigid. Preferences for same- sex playmates emerge (gender segregation) Gender-typed play/toy preferences become stronger, particularly for boys. Gender identity becomes more salient reflecting gender intensification pressures. Gender stereotyping of personality traits and achievement domains emerges. Intolerance of cross-sex mannerisms increases early in adolescence. Gender stereotyping becomes more flexible in most respects later in adolescence. Gender-typed toy/activity preferences continue to strengthen for boys; girls develop (or retain) interest in some masculine activities. Conformity to gender- typed behaviours increases early in adolescence, reflecting gender intensification.
