Personality Theory & Research:
An International Perspective
Gordon L. Flett
Prepared by
Brenda Baird, University of Ottawa
Chapter 7 Overview
• Common Theories of the Humanists
• Maslow’s Humanistic Theory
• Carl Rogers
• The Assessment and Measurement of Self-Actualization
• The Contemporary Focus on Well-Being
Common Themes of the Humanists
• Humanistic theories are also called organistic theories with a focus on the entire person
• A central theme in humanistic theories is the drive toward self-actualization, to realize one’s full
potential
• Other themes include personal growth, openness to experience, living in the present, personal
responsibility, and the inherent goodness of people
• For the humanists, the unit of analysis is perceived reality
• In contrast to Freudian determinism, humanists emphasize personal responsibility and choice
• The humanists’ view that persons are inherently good with unique attributes for greatness has led to a
movement called positive psychology
Maslow’s Humanistic Theory
Deficiency Motives and Growth Motives
• Maslow believed that neurosis was due to a lack of personal growth, and neurotic needs indicated a
loss of capability (deficiency)
• For Maslow, conflict was a reflection of mental health and indicated a desire for personal growth
The General Characteristics of Needs
• Maslow is noted for his hierarchy of needs that arranges five needs in order of relevance to physical
and psychological survival
• Lower needs (physical) are stronger and more tangible than higher needs (psychological)
• Needs must be satisfied in hierarchical order with lower needs satisfied before higher needs(e.g., food,
safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization)
The Hierarchy of Needs
• Lower needs reflect a deficiency state whereas higher reflect personal growth and occur later in
development
• The five needs in hierarchical order include:
1. Physiological Needs (thirst, hunger, sex)
2. Safety Needs (physical and emotional)
3. Belonging and Love Needs (sustained intimacy)
4. Esteem Needs (personal competence)
5. Growth Needs (self-actualization- a process The Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow differentiated between a deficient, selfish form of love that is focused on the self (D-love) and
an unselfish love that is focused on another (B-love)
• B-love is associated with the process of selfactualization
• Persons who do not satisfy the need to belong are at risk for emotional problems as outlined in
Durkheim’s (1963) theory of anomic suicide
The Psychological Characteristics of Healthy Self-Actualized People
• Critics note Maslow subjectively examined qualities of famous people to determine the characteristics
involved in self-actualization
• Maslow referred to peak experiences as wondrous moments that transcend time, space, and self
• Maslow believed self-actualization results when desacralizing ceases (an immature defence that
ignores the sacred value of needs)
The B-Values
• Maslow outlined 15 meta-motivations (Bvalues) that must be satisfied for self-actualization
• An unsatisfied B-value is associated with a specific pathological outcome • Unlike Maslow’s needs, B-values are equivalent and have no hierarchical relevance
Associated Research on the Nature of Self Actualization
• Researchers suggest that people who selfactualize are low in anxiety and high in selfacceptance
• Flett et al. (1991) showed that, ironically, striving for perfection is related to low levels of self-
actualization
• Kasser and Ryan (1993,1996) showed a negative relation between self-actualization and the pursuit of
extrinsic goals
Maslow’s Views on Personality
• Masow believed a fully functioning person is an integration of several personality syndromes
• Personality syndromes are behaviours that are determined by specific social and cultural situations
• Maslow emphasized the spiritual, not material, aspects of environment in personality development
Evaluation of Maslow’s Theory
• Statistical techniques such as the Guttman scale analysis confirm the empirical nature of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs
• Critics have raised concerns over the exact order of stages, a role for altruism, and the abstract nature
of self-actualization
• Self-actualization may be better conceived as a unique process rather than as a generalized end state
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