PSYC 3800 Chapter 2, 5: Week 2 - Cognitive Development
22 Aug 2016
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CHAPTER 2
Defining Development
Introduction
development = certain changes that occur in human beings (or animals) between conception and death
orderly
doesn’t include temporary changes
different forms of development (physical, personal, social, cognitive)
maturation = changes that occur naturally and spontaneously
largely genetically programmed
relatively unaffected by the environment (aside from severe illness, malnutrition, etc.)
Three questions across theories
nature vs. nurture
it’s really a combination and interaction of the two
coactions = nature can influence nurture, or nurture can influence nature, or both
continuity vs. discontinuity
steady progress vs. periods of change
timing: is it too late?
if opportunities are missed, can the child still “catch up”?
sensitive periods = times when a person is especially ready for or responsive to certain experiences
critical periods = times when changes must occur (use it or lose it)
General principles of development
1. people develop at different rates
2. development is relatively orderly
3. development takes place gradually
The Brain and Cognitive Development
*if you haven’t taken PSYC*2410 (Behavioural Neuroscience), read this chapter better, because I’m only putting in the definitions as a refresher
Brain imaging techniques
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
blood flow
event-related potential (ERP)
electrical activity
position emission tomography (PET)
brain activity under different conditions
Neurons
neurons, grey matter, neurogenesis, synapses, axons, dendrites, overproduction, pruning
experience-expectant — synapses are overproduced during specific developmental periods, awaiting stimulation
e.g. visual or auditory: but if these don’t develop (if blind or deaf, respectively), those processing areas devote themselves to
other areas; auditory or visual, respectively
experience-dependent = synaptic connections are formed based on the individual’s experiences
new synapses are formed in response to neural activity in localized areas (e.g. developing an ear for music)
stimulating environments may help in the pruning process in early life, and also may support increased synapse development in
adulthood
and extreme deprivation has the opposite effect (leads to cortical hypoarousal = diminished electrical activity in the brain, and
problems with attachment, attention, emotion control, and delays in cognitive and language development)
glial cells (white matter), myelin, myelination
Cerebral cortex
last to develop, so more susceptible to environmental influences
temporal lobes (emotions, judgment, language) don’t develop until the end of high school, or even later
lateralization = specialization of the hemispheres
plasticity
Adolescent development and the brain
certain abilities to control their behaviour do not develop until the early 20s
esp. in high-stress situations, incl. purpose, organization, inhibiting impulses
as the limbic system matures, adolescents become more responsive to pleasure-seeking and emotional stimulation
teachers can use this by guiding their students to devoting their energy and passion to different areas
connections to family, school, community, etc. helps stop reckless and dangerous behaviours
sleep — the brain is delaying the falling asleep time, but they still need 9 hours. Because they don’t get this, they have sleep
deprivation
leads to difficulty concentrating and learning, mood swings, behaviour problems, “drowsy driving”, etc.
Neuroscience, learning, and teaching
instruction and brain development
intensive instruction and practice can help rehabilitate stroke victims by forming new connections in the brain
students who memorize show more activity in the rain that specializes in retrieving verbal information (cf. students who use
strategy, and show greater activity in the visual-spatial processing portion)
intensive instruction helped poor readers (age 6-9), but standard school remediation did not
emotions, learning, and the brain
learning will be more effective if educators help to minimize stress and fear at school, teach students emotional regulation
strategies, and provide a positive learning environment that is motivating to students
General principles for teachers
1. the brain can limit learning, but can use alternate pathways
there are multiple ways to teach and learn a skill
2. many cognitive functions are differentiated, and associated with different parts of the brain
3. the brain is relatively plastic
4. some learning disorders may have a neurological basis
5. the brain can change, but it takes time
6. learning from real-life problems helps students construct knowledge
7. the brain seeks meaningful patterns and connections with existing networks
8. it takes a long time to build and consolidate knowledge
9. large, general concepts should be emphasized over small specific facts
10. stories should be used in teaching
Piaget
Influences on development
four factors: biological maturation, activity, social experiences, and equilibration
maturation = biological changes that are genetically programmed
activity allows increasing ability to act on the environment
e.g. learning about balance means that later, they can go up and down on a seesaw
social transmission = learning from others
that way, we don’t have to reinvent all of the knowledge already offered by our culture
Basic tendencies in thinking
organization = ongoing process of arranging information and experience into mental systems or categories
e.g. very young infants can either look at an object, or grasp it, but not both
schemes = mental systems or categories of perception and experience
adaptation = adjustment to the environment
assimilation = fitting new information into existing schemes
accommodation = altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information
equilibration = search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment
assumption that people continually test the adequacy of their thinking process to find that balance
if it doesn’t produce a satisfying result, disequilibrium exists, and we search for a solution through assimilation and
accommodation
Four stages of cognitive development
STAGE APPROX. AGE CHARACTERISTICS
Sensorimotor 0-2yo Learns through reflexes, senses and
movement
Imitation of others, symbolic thinking, object
permanence
Move to intentional activity
Preoperational Talking-7yo Develops language, symbol use
Thinks in the present tense
Doesn’t understand other viewpoints
Concrete operational Grade 1-11yo Can think logically about concrete problems
Organization into categories and in series
Can reverse think, and understands past,
present, and future
Formal operational Adolescent-adulthood Can think hypothetically and deductively, and
scientifically
Can consider multiple perspectives
Concerned about social issues, personal
identity, and justice
1. Sensorimotor stage
development of object permanence
beginning of logical, goal-directed actions
2. Pre operational
not yet mastered operations (actions that are carried out, and reversed mentally, rather than physically)
able to form an use symbols: semiotic function
can’t yet use reversible thinking
conservation = principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same, despite changes in appearance
e.g. the filling of glasses and pouring into another, they can’t grasp that there is the same amount of water
this is because they are centring (focusing on only one aspect at a time)
egocentricity = assuming that others experience the world the way that you do
3. Concrete operational
hands-on thinking
three basic aspects of reasoning
identity = a person or object remains the same over time
compensation = an apparent change in one direction can be compensated for by a change in another direction
reversibility = ability to think through a series of steps, then mentally reverse the steps and return to the starting point
classification = ability to group objects into categories (e.g. Ottawa can be in Ontario, but also in Canada)
seriation = process of making an orderly arrangement from large to small, or vice versa
4. Formal operational
hypothetic-deductive reasoning = formal-operations problem-solving strategy in which an individual begins by identifying all
the facts that might affect a problem, and then deduces and systematically evaluates specific solutions
abstract — this is the age when they can start doing hypotheticals, like algebra, metaphors, etc.
adolescent egocentrism = assumption that everyone else is interested in one’s thoughts, feelings, and concerns
involves the ‘imaginary audience’ which is why they might think “everyone noticed that I wore this shirt twice this week”
we know that everyone goes through the first three stages, but only 30-40% of high school students can perform Piaget’s formal-
operational tasks
Information processing & Neo-Piagetian view of cognitive development
Siegler proposed that as children grow older, they develop progressively better rules and strategies for solving problems and
thinking logically
this is called rule assessment
Neo-Piagetian theories = recent theories that integrate Piaget’s insights with findings about attention, memory, and strategy
e.g. if you practice using the schemes in a particular domain, you will accomplish that schema more quickly
children’s growth patterns show a similar series of spurts, and go through predictable levels of development
when learning a new skill, children go through three tiers
1. actions
2. representations
3. abstractions
optimal level of development differs from the average due to quality support, and the chance to practice those skills
Limitations
stages
lack of consistency in children’s thinking (e.g. they can conserve number before they conserve weight)
processes may be more continuous than they seem
underestimating children’s abilities
he may have given problems that were too difficult to children, or with more confusing directions
.: his subjects may have understood more than he realized (e.g. “how would a fool do it?”)
his theory also doesn’t explain how young children can perform at advanced levels that they were developed in
also claimed that abstract thinking, etc. cannot be accelerated, because the children have to be developmentally ready to
learn — but knowledge and experience in a situation affects students’ thinking
cognitive development and culture
Piaget overlooks the important cultural and social groups
age ranges change across cultures (e.g. Chinese students master certain tasks earlier, because the education system puts
more emphasis on math and science in the early grades)
Kpelle people, who group things differently than is simplest (food, tools, etc.)
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective
Socio-cultural theory = a theory that emphasizes the role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more
knowledgeable members of society
children learn the culture of the community (ways of thinking and leaving) through these interactions
Social sources of individual thinking
higher mental processes are co-constructed during shared activities between the child and another person
co-construction = constructed through a social process in which people interact and negotiate (usually verbally) to create an
understanding or to solve a problem; the final product is shaped by all participants
idea that social interaction is the origin of higher mental processes
this includes their interactions with teachers
Cultural tools and cognitive development
cultural tools = real (e.g. computers) and symbol (e.g. numbers) systems that allow people in a society to communicate, think, solve
problems, and create real knowledge
technical tools in a digital age
technology is controversial — is the student harmed or helped by supports like spell-check?
calculators have actually been shown to be more helpful: continuous use showed positive effects on problem-solving skills
psychological tools
Vygotsky believed that the essence of cognitive development is mastering the use of psychological tools to accomplish
advanced thinking
these tools enable children to gain greater mastery of their own cognitive processes
Language and private speech
when we consider a problem, we generally break it down in words and partial sentences
and Vygotsky placed more emphasis on the role of learning and language in cognitive development
Vygotsky also believed that it is important to use private speech (talking to oneself)
Piaget saw private speech as self-directed egocentric speech, or a collective monologue (form of speech in which children in a
group talk, but don’t really interact or communicate)
assuming that they can’t see the world through the eyes of others
Vygotsky suggested that it moved children towards self-regulation
transition from hearing their parents’ speech, to saying it themselves
private speech usually peaked around 9yo, but can continue throughout adolescence, and occasionally through adulthood
children and adults tend to use more private speech when they are confused, having difficulties, or making mistakes
but, internal verbal thinking is not stable until about 12yo
Zone of proximal development = phase at which a child can master a task, if given appropriate help and support
aka “the magic middle”, between what the student knows, and what the student isn’t ready to learn
private speech and the zone
scaffolding = when an adult helps a child solve a problem/accomplish a task using verbal prompts and structuring
role of learning and development
true understanding can only happen when the child has developed the operation of class inclusion
class inclusion = the idea that one category can be included in another
Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory
added in the highlighting of culture and social processes
but may have gone too far
may have underestimated children
didn’t detail the cognitive processes underlying developmental changes
consists mostly of general ideas
he died early, and most of his work was suppressed by Stalin
Implications of These Theories
Piaget — what can we learn?
Piaget firmly believed that the main goal of education should be to help children learn how to learn
if we understand, how children think, we can better teach them using appropriate strategies
balance of interest
students must be neither bored by work that is too simple, nor left behind by teaching they cannot understand
all students need to interact with their teachers and peers to test their thinking
concrete experiences provide the raw material for thinking
e.g. Brazilian children selling candy
Vygotsky — what can we learn?
learning via culture occurs in three ways
1. imitative learning (one person imitates another)
2. instructed learning (learners internalize the instruction of the teacher and use these instructions to self-regulate)
3. collaborative learning (a group of peers strive to understand together, and learning occurs in the process)
children are guided through cognitive development by both adults and their peers
assisted learning = learning by having strategic help provided in the initial stages; the help gradually diminishes as students gain
independence
Reaching every student: teaching in the “magic middle"
students should be put in situations where they have to reach to understand
but have available support from their teacher and peers
when students work together, it is beneficial for both
Cognitive development — lessons for teachers
1. cognitive development requires physical AND social stimulation
2. to develop thinking, children have to be mentally, physically, and linguistically active
they need to experiment, talk, describe, reflect, write, and solve problems
they also benefit from teaching, questions, demonstrations, and challenges
3. teaching students what they already know is boring
but teaching them what they aren’t ready for is frustrating and ineffective
4. challenge with support will keep students engaged, but not fearful
CHAPTER 5.1
Diversity in Language Development
Dual language development
overview
bilingualism can be additive or subtractive, depending on whether or not you keep your first language
if a child faces discrimination, first languages can often be lost (esp. immigrants)
if exposed from birth, bilingual children will reach the same language milestones at the same time as monolingual children,
especially if
1. it begins early in life
2. it occurs cross a wide and rich range of contexts
3. is systematic, consistent, and sustained in the home and community
second language learning
there is no critical period for learning a new language (learning language at all, however, does have a critical period)
there is a sensitive period for optimal bilingual language
critical period for learning accurate language pronunciation (the easier you learn the language, the more native the
pronunciation) — after adolescence, it is almost impossible to learn a new language without an accent
benefits of bilingualism
higher degrees of bilingualism are correlated with better concept formation, cognitive flexibility, creativity, etc.
they are also more likely to notice grammatical errors
language loss
heritage language = the language spoken in the student’s home, or by members of the family
only 16% of first- and second-generation students still spoke their heritage language well
only 17.2% of those who identify as Aboriginal can carry on a conversation in an Aboriginal language
goal should be balanced bilingualism (= adding that second language without losing the heritage language)
Signed languages
if you speak a spoken and a signed language (or 2 signed language), you can still be considered bilingual
because each signed language is distinct from the spoken languages
and those who learn sign language from birth develop the same way as those who speak two spoken languages
who speak the same as those who speak one language
What is involved in being bilingual?
14% of Canadians speak a language aside from French or English
and 80% of them live in the 6 largest metropolitan areas
bilingual people speak two languages
being bilingual requires the ability to move back and forth between two cultures AND two languages
Contextualized and academic language
contextualized language skills = face-to-face communication, and academic uses of language
incl. reading, and doing grammar exercises = academic language
academic language incl. words especially like “analyze”, “evaluate”, “factor”, “derivative”, etc.
associated with abstract, higher-order, complex concepts
mastering academic language takes longer than the 2-3 years it takes to learn a language
academic languages takes more like 5-10 years, depending on how much they already knew
Dialect Differences in the Classroom
Dialect = any variety of a language spoken by a particular group (regional variation of a language)
it’s important to remember that dialects differ in their pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary
and these aren’t wrong: they are simply different dialects
pronunciation — can occasionally lead to spelling problems, esp. to final consonants
dialects and teaching
teachers need to be sensitive to their students’ different dialects
teachers should also use different words to explain the same things to allow for more complete understanding
code-switching = changing between two speech forms
this can even be academic language and informal chat
learning alternate versions of a language is easy for most children if they have good models & clear instruction
Genderlects = different ways of talking for males and females
girls tend to be slightly more talkative and affiliative in their speech
but most of this is true for white, middle-class children
many cultural differences in genderlects
e.g. in Thailand, Hawaii, Japan, etc. the style of speaking is overlapping (not interruption)
Teaching Immigrant Students and English Language Learners
Immigrants and refugees
immigrants = people who voluntarily leave their country to become permanent residents in a new place
immigration is now the main source of Canada’s population growth
and they tend to congregate in particular neighbourhoods
.: some districts have extra difficulty with language barriers
refugees = group of immigrants who also relocate voluntarily, but who are fleeing their home country because it is not safe
either well-founded fear of persecution, or returning their will likely result in torture, risk-to-life, or risk of cruel and unusual
treatment or punishment
in the past, immigrant students were thought to be culturally handicapped
this assumption of cultural deficit model = explains the school achievement problems of ethnic minority students by assuming
that their culture is inadequate, and does not prepare them to succeed in school
multiculturalism rejects the idea of a melting pot (=a metaphor for the absorption and assimilation of immigrants into the mainstream
of society so that ethnic differences vanish (cf. mosaic)
Classrooms today — four student profiles
1. balanced bilinguals: speak, read, and write well both in their first language and English, with academic knowledge
2. monolingual/literate students: literate in their native language, but speak limited English
3. monolingual/preliterate students: not literate, might not read/write in their native language, and speak limited English
4. limited bilingual: can converse well in both languages, but have issues learning academically
Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds
Generation 1.5 = children and youth who were not born in Canada, but immigrated here with their first-generation parents, typically before
adolescence (e.g. Ramy or Javier)
and are often ear-learners
but this is often colloquial / slang, and have trouble learning how to read and write well in English
often perceive their national identity is divided between Canada and where they were born
Bilingual education and English learners
two terms associated with bilingualism
English language learners (ELL) = students who are learning English when their primary (or heritage language) is not English
English as a second language (ESL) = classes devoted to teaching ELL students English
two approaches to ELL
1. teach them to read first in their native language
2. teach them instruction in English
research on bilingual education
there are strong advantages for simultaneous bilingual learning
and immersion is more helpful (more than maintenance)
five major recommendations for ELLs
1. start by assessing to determine what they know and what they’re ready for
2. small groups can focus instruction
3. target teach essential vocal, plus common words, phrases, and expressions
4. directly teach academic English
5. use peer-assisted learning, esp. in pairs
bilingualism for all: two-way immersion
the goal for schools should be balanced bilingualism
mix fluent and non-fluent students together
need for bilingual teachers
teachers have to balance teaching subject matter with developing English skills
sheltered instruction = approach to teaching that improves English language skills while teaching content to ELL students by putting
the words and concepts of the content into context to make the content more understandable
e.g. simplifying language, using visual gestures, using real-life examples
eight key elements: preparation, building background, comprehensibility, strategies, interaction, practice and application,
lesson delivery, and review and assessment
Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) = checks that each element of sheltered instruction is present
Affective and emotional/social considerations
research shows that ELL students may experience severe challenges and stress
plus feeling out-of-place, and out-of-the-works
great need to create a caring and respectful classroom
added challenge of cultural difference in the approach to education
Working with families: using the tools of culture
instead of trying to ‘fix’ children’s deficits, Luis Moll decided to use the cultural funds of knowledge of their families
= knowledge that families and community members have acquired in many areas of work, home, and religious life that can
become the basis for teaching
interviewed families to learn about agriculture, economics, medicine, science, etc. and used that to base student assignments on
work with their resources
not their limitations
Special Challenges: English Language Learners with Disabilities and Special Gifts
English language learners with disabilities
students who immigrate after successfully learning in their home country schools have literacy skills to build on
but children who speak another language at home have no skills to build on
so bilingual instruction would be the best strategy
requires expert assessment
Reaching every student: recognizing giftedness in bilingual students
students might be gifted in academics, but may be overlooked because they cannot communicate it well
there is a useful checklist to determine if they might be gifted
BIALYSTOK
Bilinguals have a problem of attentional control
correctly selecting a form that gets all the linguistic criteria for form and meaning
is also part of the target language
Bad — language proficiency and verbal fluency
bilinguals generally have smaller vocabularies in each language (cf. monolinguals)
especially important when considering development
same pattern emerges for adults, but is access to vocabulary
slower in picture naming, word identification, etc.
because they use each language less than a monolingual
Good — conflict resolution and executive control
quicker shifting of mental sets (task switching, updating information in working memory)
better performance on metalinguistic tasks requiring controlled attention and inhibition
and at the same level of detecting grammatical violations
quicker at switching criteria for sorting tasks
because they have to switch languages
quicker at conflict-resolution
e.g. Simon task, Stroop task
parallels conflict of competing language systems
Indifferent — free recall and working memory
comparable on nonverbal tests, and short-term memory
The bilingual experience
speech-sign bilinguals perform pretty much the same as monolinguals on most tests
no difference in prevention of dementia
but, the bilinguals showed signs of dementia four years later than the monolinguals (75yo and 71yo, respectively)
CHAPTER 2
Defining Development
Introduction
development = certain changes that occur in human beings (or animals) between conception and death
orderly
doesn’t include temporary changes
different forms of development (physical, personal, social, cognitive)
maturation = changes that occur naturally and spontaneously
largely genetically programmed
relatively unaffected by the environment (aside from severe illness, malnutrition, etc.)
Three questions across theories
nature vs. nurture
it’s really a combination and interaction of the two
coactions = nature can influence nurture, or nurture can influence nature, or both
continuity vs. discontinuity
steady progress vs. periods of change
timing: is it too late?
if opportunities are missed, can the child still “catch up”?
sensitive periods = times when a person is especially ready for or responsive to certain experiences
critical periods = times when changes must occur (use it or lose it)
General principles of development
1. people develop at different rates
2. development is relatively orderly
3. development takes place gradually
The Brain and Cognitive Development
*if you haven’t taken PSYC*2410 (Behavioural Neuroscience), read this chapter better, because I’m only putting in the definitions as a refresher
Brain imaging techniques
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
blood flow
event-related potential (ERP)
electrical activity
position emission tomography (PET)
brain activity under different conditions
Neurons
neurons, grey matter, neurogenesis, synapses, axons, dendrites, overproduction, pruning
experience-expectant — synapses are overproduced during specific developmental periods, awaiting stimulation
e.g. visual or auditory: but if these don’t develop (if blind or deaf, respectively), those processing areas devote themselves to
other areas; auditory or visual, respectively
experience-dependent = synaptic connections are formed based on the individual’s experiences
new synapses are formed in response to neural activity in localized areas (e.g. developing an ear for music)
stimulating environments may help in the pruning process in early life, and also may support increased synapse development in
adulthood
and extreme deprivation has the opposite effect (leads to cortical hypoarousal = diminished electrical activity in the brain, and
problems with attachment, attention, emotion control, and delays in cognitive and language development)
glial cells (white matter), myelin, myelination
Cerebral cortex
last to develop, so more susceptible to environmental influences
temporal lobes (emotions, judgment, language) don’t develop until the end of high school, or even later
lateralization = specialization of the hemispheres
plasticity
Adolescent development and the brain
certain abilities to control their behaviour do not develop until the early 20s
esp. in high-stress situations, incl. purpose, organization, inhibiting impulses
as the limbic system matures, adolescents become more responsive to pleasure-seeking and emotional stimulation
teachers can use this by guiding their students to devoting their energy and passion to different areas
connections to family, school, community, etc. helps stop reckless and dangerous behaviours
sleep — the brain is delaying the falling asleep time, but they still need 9 hours. Because they don’t get this, they have sleep
deprivation
leads to difficulty concentrating and learning, mood swings, behaviour problems, “drowsy driving”, etc.
Neuroscience, learning, and teaching
instruction and brain development
intensive instruction and practice can help rehabilitate stroke victims by forming new connections in the brain
students who memorize show more activity in the rain that specializes in retrieving verbal information (cf. students who use
strategy, and show greater activity in the visual-spatial processing portion)
intensive instruction helped poor readers (age 6-9), but standard school remediation did not
emotions, learning, and the brain
learning will be more effective if educators help to minimize stress and fear at school, teach students emotional regulation
strategies, and provide a positive learning environment that is motivating to students
General principles for teachers
1. the brain can limit learning, but can use alternate pathways
there are multiple ways to teach and learn a skill
2. many cognitive functions are differentiated, and associated with different parts of the brain
3. the brain is relatively plastic
4. some learning disorders may have a neurological basis
5. the brain can change, but it takes time
6. learning from real-life problems helps students construct knowledge
7. the brain seeks meaningful patterns and connections with existing networks
8. it takes a long time to build and consolidate knowledge
9. large, general concepts should be emphasized over small specific facts
10. stories should be used in teaching
Piaget
Influences on development
four factors: biological maturation, activity, social experiences, and equilibration
maturation = biological changes that are genetically programmed
activity allows increasing ability to act on the environment
e.g. learning about balance means that later, they can go up and down on a seesaw
social transmission = learning from others
that way, we don’t have to reinvent all of the knowledge already offered by our culture
Basic tendencies in thinking
organization = ongoing process of arranging information and experience into mental systems or categories
e.g. very young infants can either look at an object, or grasp it, but not both
schemes = mental systems or categories of perception and experience
adaptation = adjustment to the environment
assimilation = fitting new information into existing schemes
accommodation = altering existing schemes or creating new ones in response to new information
equilibration = search for mental balance between cognitive schemes and information from the environment
assumption that people continually test the adequacy of their thinking process to find that balance
if it doesn’t produce a satisfying result, disequilibrium exists, and we search for a solution through assimilation and
accommodation
Four stages of cognitive development
STAGE APPROX. AGE CHARACTERISTICS
Sensorimotor 0-2yo Learns through reflexes, senses and
movement
Imitation of others, symbolic thinking, object
permanence
Move to intentional activity
Preoperational Talking-7yo Develops language, symbol use
Thinks in the present tense
Doesn’t understand other viewpoints
Concrete operational Grade 1-11yo Can think logically about concrete problems
Organization into categories and in series
Can reverse think, and understands past,
present, and future
Formal operational Adolescent-adulthood Can think hypothetically and deductively, and
scientifically
Can consider multiple perspectives
Concerned about social issues, personal
identity, and justice
1. Sensorimotor stage
development of object permanence
beginning of logical, goal-directed actions
2. Pre operational
not yet mastered operations (actions that are carried out, and reversed mentally, rather than physically)
able to form an use symbols: semiotic function
can’t yet use reversible thinking
conservation = principle that some characteristics of an object remain the same, despite changes in appearance
e.g. the filling of glasses and pouring into another, they can’t grasp that there is the same amount of water
this is because they are centring (focusing on only one aspect at a time)
egocentricity = assuming that others experience the world the way that you do
3. Concrete operational
hands-on thinking
three basic aspects of reasoning
identity = a person or object remains the same over time
compensation = an apparent change in one direction can be compensated for by a change in another direction
reversibility = ability to think through a series of steps, then mentally reverse the steps and return to the starting point
classification = ability to group objects into categories (e.g. Ottawa can be in Ontario, but also in Canada)
seriation = process of making an orderly arrangement from large to small, or vice versa
4. Formal operational
hypothetic-deductive reasoning = formal-operations problem-solving strategy in which an individual begins by identifying all
the facts that might affect a problem, and then deduces and systematically evaluates specific solutions
abstract — this is the age when they can start doing hypotheticals, like algebra, metaphors, etc.
adolescent egocentrism = assumption that everyone else is interested in one’s thoughts, feelings, and concerns
involves the ‘imaginary audience’ which is why they might think “everyone noticed that I wore this shirt twice this week”
we know that everyone goes through the first three stages, but only 30-40% of high school students can perform Piaget’s formal-
operational tasks
Information processing & Neo-Piagetian view of cognitive development
Siegler proposed that as children grow older, they develop progressively better rules and strategies for solving problems and
thinking logically
this is called rule assessment
Neo-Piagetian theories = recent theories that integrate Piaget’s insights with findings about attention, memory, and strategy
e.g. if you practice using the schemes in a particular domain, you will accomplish that schema more quickly
children’s growth patterns show a similar series of spurts, and go through predictable levels of development
when learning a new skill, children go through three tiers
1. actions
2. representations
3. abstractions
optimal level of development differs from the average due to quality support, and the chance to practice those skills
Limitations
stages
lack of consistency in children’s thinking (e.g. they can conserve number before they conserve weight)
processes may be more continuous than they seem
underestimating children’s abilities
he may have given problems that were too difficult to children, or with more confusing directions
.: his subjects may have understood more than he realized (e.g. “how would a fool do it?”)
his theory also doesn’t explain how young children can perform at advanced levels that they were developed in
also claimed that abstract thinking, etc. cannot be accelerated, because the children have to be developmentally ready to
learn — but knowledge and experience in a situation affects students’ thinking
cognitive development and culture
Piaget overlooks the important cultural and social groups
age ranges change across cultures (e.g. Chinese students master certain tasks earlier, because the education system puts
more emphasis on math and science in the early grades)
Kpelle people, who group things differently than is simplest (food, tools, etc.)
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective
Socio-cultural theory = a theory that emphasizes the role in development of cooperative dialogues between children and more
knowledgeable members of society
children learn the culture of the community (ways of thinking and leaving) through these interactions
Social sources of individual thinking
higher mental processes are co-constructed during shared activities between the child and another person
co-construction = constructed through a social process in which people interact and negotiate (usually verbally) to create an
understanding or to solve a problem; the final product is shaped by all participants
idea that social interaction is the origin of higher mental processes
this includes their interactions with teachers
Cultural tools and cognitive development
cultural tools = real (e.g. computers) and symbol (e.g. numbers) systems that allow people in a society to communicate, think, solve
problems, and create real knowledge
technical tools in a digital age
technology is controversial — is the student harmed or helped by supports like spell-check?
calculators have actually been shown to be more helpful: continuous use showed positive effects on problem-solving skills
psychological tools
Vygotsky believed that the essence of cognitive development is mastering the use of psychological tools to accomplish
advanced thinking
these tools enable children to gain greater mastery of their own cognitive processes
Language and private speech
when we consider a problem, we generally break it down in words and partial sentences
and Vygotsky placed more emphasis on the role of learning and language in cognitive development
Vygotsky also believed that it is important to use private speech (talking to oneself)
Piaget saw private speech as self-directed egocentric speech, or a collective monologue (form of speech in which children in a
group talk, but don’t really interact or communicate)
assuming that they can’t see the world through the eyes of others
Vygotsky suggested that it moved children towards self-regulation
transition from hearing their parents’ speech, to saying it themselves
private speech usually peaked around 9yo, but can continue throughout adolescence, and occasionally through adulthood
children and adults tend to use more private speech when they are confused, having difficulties, or making mistakes
but, internal verbal thinking is not stable until about 12yo
Zone of proximal development = phase at which a child can master a task, if given appropriate help and support
aka “the magic middle”, between what the student knows, and what the student isn’t ready to learn
private speech and the zone
scaffolding = when an adult helps a child solve a problem/accomplish a task using verbal prompts and structuring
role of learning and development
true understanding can only happen when the child has developed the operation of class inclusion
class inclusion = the idea that one category can be included in another
Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory
added in the highlighting of culture and social processes
but may have gone too far
may have underestimated children
didn’t detail the cognitive processes underlying developmental changes
consists mostly of general ideas
he died early, and most of his work was suppressed by Stalin
Implications of These Theories
Piaget — what can we learn?
Piaget firmly believed that the main goal of education should be to help children learn how to learn
if we understand, how children think, we can better teach them using appropriate strategies
balance of interest
students must be neither bored by work that is too simple, nor left behind by teaching they cannot understand
all students need to interact with their teachers and peers to test their thinking
concrete experiences provide the raw material for thinking
e.g. Brazilian children selling candy
Vygotsky — what can we learn?
learning via culture occurs in three ways
1. imitative learning (one person imitates another)
2. instructed learning (learners internalize the instruction of the teacher and use these instructions to self-regulate)
3. collaborative learning (a group of peers strive to understand together, and learning occurs in the process)
children are guided through cognitive development by both adults and their peers
assisted learning = learning by having strategic help provided in the initial stages; the help gradually diminishes as students gain
independence
Reaching every student: teaching in the “magic middle"
students should be put in situations where they have to reach to understand
but have available support from their teacher and peers
when students work together, it is beneficial for both
Cognitive development — lessons for teachers
1. cognitive development requires physical AND social stimulation
2. to develop thinking, children have to be mentally, physically, and linguistically active
they need to experiment, talk, describe, reflect, write, and solve problems
they also benefit from teaching, questions, demonstrations, and challenges
3. teaching students what they already know is boring
but teaching them what they aren’t ready for is frustrating and ineffective
4. challenge with support will keep students engaged, but not fearful
CHAPTER 5.1
Diversity in Language Development
Dual language development
overview
bilingualism can be additive or subtractive, depending on whether or not you keep your first language
if a child faces discrimination, first languages can often be lost (esp. immigrants)
if exposed from birth, bilingual children will reach the same language milestones at the same time as monolingual children,
especially if
1. it begins early in life
2. it occurs cross a wide and rich range of contexts
3. is systematic, consistent, and sustained in the home and community
second language learning
there is no critical period for learning a new language (learning language at all, however, does have a critical period)
there is a sensitive period for optimal bilingual language
critical period for learning accurate language pronunciation (the easier you learn the language, the more native the
pronunciation) — after adolescence, it is almost impossible to learn a new language without an accent
benefits of bilingualism
higher degrees of bilingualism are correlated with better concept formation, cognitive flexibility, creativity, etc.
they are also more likely to notice grammatical errors
language loss
heritage language = the language spoken in the student’s home, or by members of the family
only 16% of first- and second-generation students still spoke their heritage language well
only 17.2% of those who identify as Aboriginal can carry on a conversation in an Aboriginal language
goal should be balanced bilingualism (= adding that second language without losing the heritage language)
Signed languages
if you speak a spoken and a signed language (or 2 signed language), you can still be considered bilingual
because each signed language is distinct from the spoken languages
and those who learn sign language from birth develop the same way as those who speak two spoken languages
who speak the same as those who speak one language
What is involved in being bilingual?
14% of Canadians speak a language aside from French or English
and 80% of them live in the 6 largest metropolitan areas
bilingual people speak two languages
being bilingual requires the ability to move back and forth between two cultures AND two languages
Contextualized and academic language
contextualized language skills = face-to-face communication, and academic uses of language
incl. reading, and doing grammar exercises = academic language
academic language incl. words especially like “analyze”, “evaluate”, “factor”, “derivative”, etc.
associated with abstract, higher-order, complex concepts
mastering academic language takes longer than the 2-3 years it takes to learn a language
academic languages takes more like 5-10 years, depending on how much they already knew
Dialect Differences in the Classroom
Dialect = any variety of a language spoken by a particular group (regional variation of a language)
it’s important to remember that dialects differ in their pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary
and these aren’t wrong: they are simply different dialects
pronunciation — can occasionally lead to spelling problems, esp. to final consonants
dialects and teaching
teachers need to be sensitive to their students’ different dialects
teachers should also use different words to explain the same things to allow for more complete understanding
code-switching = changing between two speech forms
this can even be academic language and informal chat
learning alternate versions of a language is easy for most children if they have good models & clear instruction
Genderlects = different ways of talking for males and females
girls tend to be slightly more talkative and affiliative in their speech
but most of this is true for white, middle-class children
many cultural differences in genderlects
e.g. in Thailand, Hawaii, Japan, etc. the style of speaking is overlapping (not interruption)
Teaching Immigrant Students and English Language Learners
Immigrants and refugees
immigrants = people who voluntarily leave their country to become permanent residents in a new place
immigration is now the main source of Canada’s population growth
and they tend to congregate in particular neighbourhoods
.: some districts have extra difficulty with language barriers
refugees = group of immigrants who also relocate voluntarily, but who are fleeing their home country because it is not safe
either well-founded fear of persecution, or returning their will likely result in torture, risk-to-life, or risk of cruel and unusual
treatment or punishment
in the past, immigrant students were thought to be culturally handicapped
this assumption of cultural deficit model = explains the school achievement problems of ethnic minority students by assuming
that their culture is inadequate, and does not prepare them to succeed in school
multiculturalism rejects the idea of a melting pot (=a metaphor for the absorption and assimilation of immigrants into the mainstream
of society so that ethnic differences vanish (cf. mosaic)
Classrooms today — four student profiles
1. balanced bilinguals: speak, read, and write well both in their first language and English, with academic knowledge
2. monolingual/literate students: literate in their native language, but speak limited English
3. monolingual/preliterate students: not literate, might not read/write in their native language, and speak limited English
4. limited bilingual: can converse well in both languages, but have issues learning academically
Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds
Generation 1.5 = children and youth who were not born in Canada, but immigrated here with their first-generation parents, typically before
adolescence (e.g. Ramy or Javier)
and are often ear-learners
but this is often colloquial / slang, and have trouble learning how to read and write well in English
often perceive their national identity is divided between Canada and where they were born
Bilingual education and English learners
two terms associated with bilingualism
English language learners (ELL) = students who are learning English when their primary (or heritage language) is not English
English as a second language (ESL) = classes devoted to teaching ELL students English
two approaches to ELL
1. teach them to read first in their native language
2. teach them instruction in English
research on bilingual education
there are strong advantages for simultaneous bilingual learning
and immersion is more helpful (more than maintenance)
five major recommendations for ELLs
1. start by assessing to determine what they know and what they’re ready for
2. small groups can focus instruction
3. target teach essential vocal, plus common words, phrases, and expressions
4. directly teach academic English
5. use peer-assisted learning, esp. in pairs
bilingualism for all: two-way immersion
the goal for schools should be balanced bilingualism
mix fluent and non-fluent students together
need for bilingual teachers
teachers have to balance teaching subject matter with developing English skills
sheltered instruction = approach to teaching that improves English language skills while teaching content to ELL students by putting
the words and concepts of the content into context to make the content more understandable
e.g. simplifying language, using visual gestures, using real-life examples
eight key elements: preparation, building background, comprehensibility, strategies, interaction, practice and application,
lesson delivery, and review and assessment
Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) = checks that each element of sheltered instruction is present
Affective and emotional/social considerations
research shows that ELL students may experience severe challenges and stress
plus feeling out-of-place, and out-of-the-works
great need to create a caring and respectful classroom
added challenge of cultural difference in the approach to education
Working with families: using the tools of culture
instead of trying to ‘fix’ children’s deficits, Luis Moll decided to use the cultural funds of knowledge of their families
= knowledge that families and community members have acquired in many areas of work, home, and religious life that can
become the basis for teaching
interviewed families to learn about agriculture, economics, medicine, science, etc. and used that to base student assignments on
work with their resources
not their limitations
Special Challenges: English Language Learners with Disabilities and Special Gifts
English language learners with disabilities
students who immigrate after successfully learning in their home country schools have literacy skills to build on
but children who speak another language at home have no skills to build on
so bilingual instruction would be the best strategy
requires expert assessment
Reaching every student: recognizing giftedness in bilingual students
students might be gifted in academics, but may be overlooked because they cannot communicate it well
there is a useful checklist to determine if they might be gifted
BIALYSTOK
Bilinguals have a problem of attentional control
correctly selecting a form that gets all the linguistic criteria for form and meaning
is also part of the target language
Bad — language proficiency and verbal fluency
bilinguals generally have smaller vocabularies in each language (cf. monolinguals)
especially important when considering development
same pattern emerges for adults, but is access to vocabulary
slower in picture naming, word identification, etc.
because they use each language less than a monolingual
Good — conflict resolution and executive control
quicker shifting of mental sets (task switching, updating information in working memory)
better performance on metalinguistic tasks requiring controlled attention and inhibition
and at the same level of detecting grammatical violations
quicker at switching criteria for sorting tasks
because they have to switch languages
quicker at conflict-resolution
e.g. Simon task, Stroop task
parallels conflict of competing language systems
Indifferent — free recall and working memory
comparable on nonverbal tests, and short-term memory
The bilingual experience
speech-sign bilinguals perform pretty much the same as monolinguals on most tests
no difference in prevention of dementia
but, the bilinguals showed signs of dementia four years later than the monolinguals (75yo and 71yo, respectively)
Document Summary
General principles of development: people develop at di erent rates, development is relatively orderly, development takes place gradually. *if you haven"t taken psyc*2410 (behavioural neuroscience), read this chapter better, because i"m only putting in the de nitions as a refresher. Brain imaging techniques functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri) blood ow event-related potential (erp) electrical activity position emission tomography (pet) brain activity under di erent conditions. Cerebral cortex last to develop, so more susceptible to environmental in uences temporal lobes (emotions, judgment, language) don"t develop until the end of high school, or even later lateralization = specialization of the hemispheres plasticity. Because they don"t get this, they have sleep deprivation leads to di culty concentrating and learning, mood swings, behaviour problems, drowsy driving , etc. leads to di culty concentrating and learning, mood swings, behaviour problems, drowsy driving , etc. Can reverse think, and understands past, present, and future. Can think hypothetically and deductively, and present, and future scienti cally.
