AFM291 Chapter Notes - Chapter 3: Accrual, Cash Flow, Deferral
AFM 291 – Chapter 3
Demand for Periodic Reporting and the Need for Accrual Accounting
• Accounting: production and transmission of information about an enterprise from those who
have it to those who need it
• Cash Cycles: transactions that converts cash inflow to cash outflow or vice versa
o Financing Cash Flow: receipt of funding form investors. Use funds to generate profit
which is given to investors
▪ Inflow then outflow
o Investing Cash Flow: use funds to purchase property that has future benefits for the
company and generate cash inflow for the business then disposing the property
▪ Outflow then inflow
o Operating Cash Flow: purchase of inventory, production, sales and delivery of goods and
receipt from customers
▪ Outflow then inflow
• With the rise of indefinite life companies people starting selling their investments at some point
before the dissolution of the company and they needed info to help value their investment so
information was provided in intervals. Did’t hae to ait util the dissolutio to fid out
whether or not they made money.
• The end of a reporting period such as a year will not correspond with the completion of
transactions
Accrual vs. Cash Accounting
• Accrual Accounting: basis of accounting that reflects economical events when they happen
rather than only when cash exchanges occur
• Cash Accounting: method of accounting that records only cash exchanges
• Cash basis balance sheet has only cash and equity in equal amounts. There are no other items
because all non cash items are accruals
• Accruals: accounting entries that record events in a period different from the corresponding
cash flows
• Accruals encompasses:
o Events before cash flows
o Events after cash flows
• Deferral: accounting entry that reflects events or transactions after the related cash flow
• Accrual basis of accounting provides more useful financial info to readers because it permits
companies and their management to communicate their expectations of future outcomes and it
closely reflects underlying events
Uncertainty and the Essential Role of Estimates in Accrual Accounting
• Accrual accounting involves reporting amounts before the completion of some or all of the cash
cycle so it requires the use of estimates
• Estiates = ipreise = o true aoutig report for a set of irustaes.
• Unbiased Accounting: A conceptual accounting outcomes that would result from taking an
average or consensus from a sample of disinterested accountants
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o Unbiased accounting is similar to neutrality
• Before IFRS had a oept of true ad fair. No it’s ol fair eause there is o true due to
estimations.
Quality of Earnings and Earnings Management
• Inadequate evaluation quality of earnings in different ways:
o Since a measure of true earnings does not exist, we cannot evaluate earnings quality
relative to true earnings
o Using cash flow to evaluate the quality of earnings implies that cash flow is a better
measure of performance, but cash flow is an inferior measure of performance compared
to accrual basis earnings
• Quality of Earnings: how closely reported earnings correspond to earnings that would be
reported in the absence of management basis
o i.e. company reported $500 in cash flow and $800 in earnings. $300 (800-500)
represents the accrual difference in cash flow and earnings. The $300 of accruals can be
separated in 2 components:
▪ unbiased accruals that reflect economic conditions and accounting standards in
the application of professional judgment and considering professional ethics
▪ excessive accruals that result from contractual incentives for the
firm/management and any unethical managerial opportunism to over or under
accrue
o i.e. if company had $200 in unbiased accrual, they will have $100 in excessive accruals.
Therefore unbiased earnings = cash flows + unbiased earnings = $500 + $200 = $700
• lower excessive accruals = higher quality of earnings
Periodicity, Cut-Off and Subsequent Events
• Timing is everything: accrual accounting exists precisely because users desire to know what
events and transactions occurred in a particular period of time
1. Periodicity
o Typical reporting period of any entity: 12 months
o An annual period does not have to match the calendar year
o Many businesses choose a year end that coincides with a time of lower activity
o Some enterprises will have reporting periods that are close to but not exactly 12 months
▪ i.e. retailers have reporting period of 52 weeks and 53 weeks once every several
years because doing so provides more comparable info year to year due to sales
being higher on some day of the week then others
• Cut-off
o Point in time at which one reporting periods ends and the next one begins
o In accrual accounting so it is necessary to have rules stating which events will be
reflecting in the reporting period and what will not be recorded
o Should consider the best up-to-date information because it is not reasonable to wait for
all uncertainty to disappear
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