Chapter 6: Organizational Learning
One implication of this changing nature of work is that greater relative importance is placed on skill
enhancement
Training – process through which the knowledge and skills of employees are enhanced
Informal/unintentional learning is the knowledge we acquire and use to better out lives simply by paying
attention to our environment and adapting
o Self-guided; learner-directed
Only 10% of learning within an organization is due to formal training; the rest is from informal learning
Chief learning officer; “learning” has now reached same level as finance and operations (chief finance
officer; chief operating officer)
The information age is characterized by a transition to a knowledge-based economy
Knowledge workers – work with information and ideas or solve problems and carry out creative tasks
Learning and task performance
Learning – process by which change in knowledge or skills is acquired through education or experience
o Encoding, retaining, and using information
o “Human information processors”
Skill acquisition can be divided into 3 phases:
o Declarative knowledge – knowledge about facts and things – involves memorizing and
reasoning processes
Observe demonstrations of the task and learn task-sequencing rules
Performance is slow and prone to error
o Knowledge compilation – knowledge acquired as a result of learning – integrate the sequences
of cognitive and motor processes required to perform the task
Performance becomes faster and more accurate
Attentional demands are reduced – long-term memory
o Procedural knowledge – knowledge about how to use information to address issues and solve
problems
Automatized the skill
Perform task efficient w/ little attention
Becomes so second nature that they report difficulty in describing what they know that
others do not know
Three major classes of abilities are critical for performance in the 3 phases of skill acquisition
o General intellectual ability (g) – most important in acquiring declarative knowledge
Initially, attentional demands are high – as you develop a performance strategy,
demands decrease
o Perceptual speed abilities – basic understanding of how to perform the task but seeks a more
efficient method for accomplishing the task with minimal attentional effort
Required to move along from declarative to procedural knowledge
Needed to process info faster
o Psychomotor abilities - determine the final level of task performance in the procedural
knowledge phase
Learning the requirements of jobs in the military occurred in stages with plateaus in learning followed by
subsequent periods of growth
Learning to perform tasks depends on a complex set of factors that affect gains in performance as well
as the duration of the performance
3 distinguishing features of people who are regarded as experts on a topic vs novices
1. Proceduralization – refers to a set of conditional action rules: if condition A exists, then action B
is needed
Automaticity – refers to a state of rapid performance that requires little cognitive effort
Experts not only “know” things, but also know when that knowledge is applicable and
when it should not be used
o Novice may be equally competent at recalling specific info, but experts are better
at relating that info in cause-and-effect sequences
2. Mental models – the way knowledge is organized Mental models of experts are better because they contain more diagnostic cues for
detecting meaningful patterns in learning – they have more complex knowledge
structures, resulting in faster solution times
3. Meta-cognition – an individual’s knowledge of and control over his or her cognitions
Experts: greater understanding of the demands of a ask and their own capabilities; more
likely to discontinue a problem-solving strategy that would have proven unsuccessful
The pre-training environment
Employees start to learn how training is viewed in the organization early in the socialization process
and continue to gather information with each training activity they attend
Trainees who had more supportive supervisors entered training with stronger beliefs that training would
be useful
Trainees who entered training expecting some form of follow-up activity or assessment afterward
reported stronger intentions to transfer what they learned back on the job
Trainees who reported many limitations in their job (lack of time/equipment/resources) entered training
with lower motivation to learn – they had little incentive to learn new skills in an environment where they
couldn’t apply them
Methods and techniques of training
E-learning – the new approach to learning
The computer is powerful because it facilitates learning in way that other media (a book) cannot
In the past, training methods assumed there was a certain amount of knowledge an employee needed
to perform their job – upon acquisition of that knowledge, they were deemed qualified
Now, it’s not simply a case of knowledge acquisition – more ways than one to perform a job
o What matters is whether the performance objectives are fulfilled, with less emphasis placed on
how they were fulfilled
o Computer-based training helps individuals discover “which was” works best for them
Computer-based training
o Computer-based training – utilizes computer technology to enhance knowledge and skill
acquisition
o Programmed instruction
The most basic CB training that provides for self-paced learning
Trainees who answer more questions correctly move quickly through the material
Because if they answer correctly, they move on to new info; if incorrect, they’re
taken back to review the relevant material
80% of leading companies use programmed instruction in some form
o Intelligent tutoring systems
A sophisticated type of CB training that uses artificial intelligence to customize learning
to the individual
Based on the trainee’s responses to questions posed, the system continuously modifies
the level of instruction presented to the trainee
Can vary the order and difficulty of the questions presented
o Interactive multimedia training
A type of CB training that combines visual and auditory info to create a realistic but
nonthreatening environment
More sophisticated
Combines text, photos, graphics, videos, animation, and sound – to simulate a rl
situation
Interactive because it allows the trainee to make decisions and then receive immediate
feedback
o Virtual reality training
A type of CB training that uses 3D imagery
Effective because trainee experiences a sense of “telepresence” in the environment
Headset, gloves, treadmill
Least commonly used due to its narrow range of purpose
Non-computer-based training
o Business games A method of training that simulates a business environment with specific objectives to
achieve and rules for trainees to follow
Sometimes face conflicting objectives and must defend the choices they made
Well-crafted games contain surprises, interdependent outcomes, and twists that engage
the trainee
Broad focus
o Role playing
A training method directed primarily at enhancing interpersonal skills in which trainees
adopt various roles in a group exercise
Less tightly structured than acting
Switching roles from your real life position forces the participant to adopt the other side’s
position and then defend it
o Behavior modeling
A method of training that makes use of imitative learning and reinforcement to modify
human behavior
An expert is used as the model for the behavior
Narrow focus
Used for training in interpersonal skills, sales, industrial safety, employment interviews,
etc
Skill development was greatest when learning points were presented with specific
behavioural-based guidelines as opposed to general descriptions
Ex: “listen and respond with empathy to reduce defensiveness” vs “listen
cafefully”
The biggest trend in training methods is the shift toward CB training
Error management training
Error management training – a system of training in which employees are encouraged to make errors,
and then learn from their mistakes
Two factors are critical to this organizational culture: open communication about errors, and early
detection and recovery from others
Represents an inversion of conventional thinking about what contributes to our perception of a top
performer – emphasis would switch to employees who “do make mistakes, and they have learned from
them”
Whatever mistakes are made must not inflict harm to the organization
o “best mistakes” – those that produce few/no negative consequences – high learning value,
generalizable
Useful when the goal of training is to learn skills that will generalize to many tasks
Management development issues
Management development – process by which individuals serving in management or leadership
positions are trained to better perform the job
The one factor that seems to distinguish excellent companies from others is the amount of time and
energy spent in the planning, design, and execution of developmental activities
Many managers seek continual advancement
Three personal skills linked to successful job performance: developing self-awareness, managing
stress, and solving problems creatively
Four interpersonal skills: communicating supportively, gaining power and influence, motivating others,
managing conflict
Underutilization of selected managerial skills and practices contributes to derailment
o Derailment occurs when a manager who has been judged to have the ability to go higher fails to
live up to his or her full potential and is fired/demoted/plateaued
“Glass ceiling” for women in the professional advancement in an organization – created by
organizations that regulate access to developmental experiences that grooms men for powerful
positions
Even women who “broke through” the glass ceiling into the highest-level executive jobs reported having
less authority, fewer stock options, and less international mobility than men Developmental activities had a more positive influence on the managerial advancement of men than
women
Men were more likely than women to attend company-sponsored training courses (ages 35-54,
especially)
Men gain skills and knowledge that are more relevant to managerial work – better prepared for
advancement
Cultural diversity training
o Two ways to approach cultural differences: ignore the differences, OR accept the cultural
differences and improve relationships by teaching people from each culture to appreciate the
other culture’s perspective
o Melting pot conception – a concept behind fa
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