BIOL 110 Chapter Notes - Chapter 21: Allele Frequency, Genotype Frequency, Genetic Variation

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14 Jan 2017

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Population genetics: population - group of organisms that are members of the same species and that live in the same geographical area, natural selection occurs at the individual level, evolution occurs at the population level. Can change over time: genotype of an individual is determined at the moment of fertilization and cannot be changed during their lifetime, but; allele frequencies can change overtime (evolve) Genetic variation: variation can be measured within a population and between populations, monomorphic; there is no variation among members of the population, just one form exists. Can also be polymorphic: variations can be extreme, phenotypes can be affected by the environment; skin tone, pku, trees, iq. The genetic composition of a population: genetic makeup of a population can be described by the frequency of alleles that exist in a population. Ex: the cf allele has a frequency 0. 04. Frequencies must add up to 1!!: a population can have many genes for which alternative alleles exist.

Related Questions

1.. Polymorphisms for a given trait are relatively common in most species. Discuss the possible advantages or polymorphisms in terms of evolutionary fitness. Be sure to relate your discussion to a specific example. It is also possible that organisms showing more heterozygosity may actually be less fit. Describe one such possible scenario.

2. In the peppered moth (Biston betularia), black individuals may be either homozygous (A1A1) or heterozygous(A1A2), whereas the pale gray moths are homozygous (A2A2). Suppose that in a sample of 250 moths from one locality, 108 are black, and 142 are gray.

3. Retrace the history of primate evolution from early primates to monkeys, apes and hominins. When did some ofthe significant divergences occur (such as between the prosimians and the monkeys or between the chimps and hominins)? What was happening with the continents and the major climatic conditions during these times?What are the major species (including the extinct species) along the human lineage after the split with the chimps and bonobos? Where did many of these events occur on the globe and when?

4. Spencer Wells described his study how the genetic markers in humans are being used to infer the historical geographical distribution of humans and the dispersal of our ancestors. Explain how the genetic markers on our DNA (from blood samples) helps us understand that history. What are the techniques he is using? What is the nature of the evidence? What are the major conclusions about the journey of our ancestors out of Africa?What were the major migrations of humans to all the other continents? Approximately when did each migration occur and what were the major paths? How does the evidence support these conclusions? What Supporting evidence besides the DNA evidence is being used to support these conclusions?

5. Provide an adaptive and a non adaptive hypothesis for the evolutionary loss of useless organs, such as eyes in many cave-dwelling animals. How might these hypotheses be tested?

6. Directional selection is one of the models of natural selection. Describe this type of selection in terms of the frequencies of advantageous alleles over time. What is the trend over time? What is the eventual outcome for this allele as long as no other evolutionary factors intervene? Describe at least one good example of directional selection.

7. Consider the first copy of an allele for insecticide resistance that arises by mutation in a population of insects exposed to an insecticide. Is this mutation an adaptation? If, after some generations, we find that most of the population is resistant, is the resistance an adaptation? If we discover genetic variation for insecticide resistance in a population that has had no experience of insecticides, is that variation an adaptation? If an insect population is polymorphic for two alleles, each of which confers resistance against one of two pesticides that are alternately applied, is that variation an adaptation? Or is each of the two resistance traits an adaptation?Explain your reasoning thoroughly.

8. Suppose that a mutation in a species of annual plant increases allocation to chemical defenses against herbivores, but decreases production of flowers and seeds (i.e., there is an allocation trade-off). What would you have to measure in a field study in order to predict whether or not the frequency of the mutation will increase?

9. In many socially monogamous species of parrots and other birds, both sexes are brilliantly colored or highly ornamented. Is sexual selection likely to be responsible for the coloration and ornaments of both sexes? How can there be sexual selection in pair-bonding species with a 1:1 sex ratio, since every individual presumably obtains a mate? Which of the models of sexual selection described in the book might account for these species characteristics?

10. Kin selection explains why organisms may provide benefits to relatives. Is there a conflict between the principle of kin selection and the evolution of siblicide and abortion?

11.Many species of albatrosses and other seabirds nest in colonies on islands. The adult search for food at sea,sometimes over great distances. Some ecologists who study seabirds turn to their favorite topic of discussion in a bar one evening, and one says, âI can imagine an albatross genotype that destroys the eggs of nestlings of its colony mates when the parents are away foraging, and leaves them dead without eating them. Do you think such a behavior would evolve?â One of his companions says, âYes, because it would make more food available for the albatross and its offspring.â Another says, âNo, because it would threaten the survival of the population.â The fourth says, âYouâre both wrong. I have a different explanation for why albatrosses donât kill othersâ chicks.â What is the fourth ecologistâs explanation, and why does she think her companions are wrong?

12. The concept of a species is fundamental to understanding biology, yet there may not be one definition that fits all âtypesâ of organisms (e.g. animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, slime mold, lichens, etc.). Discuss several of the definitions of a species as presented in class and present your own definition for a species. Compare the strengths and weaknesses of each definition. Ernst Mayr is strong proponent of the biological species concept.How does he justify his position? Do you agree or disagree? If we employ the biological species concept, when did species first exist? What were organisms before then, if not species? What might the consequences of the emergence of species be for processes of adaptation and diversification? Be sure to explain your reasoning thoroughly.

13. The process of speciation ultimately involves the development of reproductive isolation between two related populations of organisms. Describe the various types of both prezygotic and postzygotic reproductive isolation and give an example of each.

14. Respond to the following quote from the character named Mr. Spock in âStar Trekâ:âA truly successful parasite is commensal, living in amity with its host, or even giving it positive advantages, as for instance, the protozoans who live in the digestive system of your termites and digest for them the wood they eat. A parasite that regularly and inevitably kills its host cannot survive long, in the evolutionary sense, unless it multiplies with tremendous rapidity ... it is not pro-survival.âFrom what you have learned in this course, do you agree or disagree with Spock? How can you apply your reasoning to the relative âfitnessâ of HIV which causes AIDS, the Ebola virus which causes hemorrhagic fever,fleas which suck blood from dogs, or the prokaryotic ancestors of mitochondria and chloroplasts?

15. In many species of birds and mammals, clutch size is larger in populations at high latitudes than in population sat low latitudes. Species of lizards and snakes at high latitudes often have smaller clutches, however, and are more frequently viviparous (bear live young rather than laying eggs), than low-latitude species. What selective factors might be responsible for these patterns? Explain your reasoning.

16. The popular media often presents evolution as being a predictable process with a definite goal. For instance, in one âStar Trek: Voyagerâ episode, the captain instructs the shipâs computer to extrapolate the âprobable courseâ of evolution of hadrosaurs (a bipedal dinosaur), if hadrosaurs had been removed from Earth before the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) Extinction and allowed to evolve on another planet. What information about the hadrosaursâ new environment would have been useful in developing the best possible prediction? Given what you know on genetic drift and selective agents, is it possible to accurately predict the long-term course of evolution?

17. Young children often develop strong food preferences that sometimes seem bizarre to their parents --- such as wanting to eat only a certain food prepared in a familiar way, or being reluctant to each new foods or foods with strong or bitter tastes (like coffee and some vegetables). Develop an evolutionary explanation for such preferences. What evidence would you gather to investigate your hypothesis and rule out alternative explanations?

18. Many organisms, such as mammals, only reproduce by sexual means. Other organisms are exclusively asexual,such as many of the bacteria and fungi. And still others have ways of propagating by both sexual and asexualmeans. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of each mode of reproduction. Why arenât all organisms sexual critters? Why are many asexual organisms still very successful as evidenced by the pure abundance and diversity? What is the adaptive significance of having different genders (e.g. male and female)?In other words, why sex?

19. How might differential expression and regulation by Hox genes contribute to mosaic evolution in which different segments of an animal body plan evolve different morphology?

20. Development of a morphological structure involves many different types of gene products, including transcription factors, signaling proteins, and âeffectorâ genes such as enzymes. When a morphological change occurs in a single mutational step, which of these types might be more or less likely to be involved? Within a gene, would such single-step events be more likely to involve coding or non-coding sequences, and what characteristics of the geneâs function might affect this likelihood?

21. Since 2001, the complete DNA sequences of the genomes of many people have been determined. If humans,along with other forms of life, have evolved from a common ancestor, what evidence of this would be expected in the human genome? In what ways might the history and processes of evolution help us interpret and make sense of the human genome sequence data?

22. Paleontologists and some biologists commonly infer function, and even behavior, from anatomical details.Skeletal features, for example, are often used to infer that an extinct mammal (such as an early hominid) was highly, somewhat, or not at all arboreal. This inference assumes a good fit of form to function (i.e., optimal form). Can this assumption be justified?

23. Stephen Jay Gould (1989) and others have argued that the evolution of self-conscious, intelligent species (i.e.humans) was historically contingent: it would not have occurred had any of a great many historical events been different. The philosopher Daniel Dennett (1995) and others have disagreed, arguing that convergent evolution is so common that if humans had not evolved, some other lineage would probably have given rise to a species with similar mental abilities. What do you think, and why? If Gouldâs position is right, what are its philosophical implications, if any?

24. Explain how Intelligent Design was determined as a religious view rather than a scientific view in the court casein Dover, PA. Should a scientific explanation of evolution be included in a science curriculum in K-12 schools?How is science and religion different in how they seek answers to questions? How is term "theory" used differently in science than in everyday English use? What is biological evolution? What evidence is used to support the scientific explanation of evolution? Is it possible to accept scientific explanations without rejecting religious faith?

25. Discuss how a creationist versus an evolutionary biologist might explain some human characteristics and the implications of their differences. Sample characteristics: eyes; wisdom teeth; individually unique friction ridges(fingerprints); five digits rather than some other number; susceptibility to infections; fever when infected;variation in sexual orientation; limited life span.

As temperatures in an African savanna increase and rainfall decreases, it would most likely change into

tiaga

desert

tropical rainforest

temperate forest

What is imprinting? Give an example.

fixed assocation, such as hatching ducks recognizing the first animal they see as their mother

a learned behavior, such as a wasp circling during a search for food, so that it can return to its nest

alteration of instinct, such as a spider changing the type of web it weaves depending upon the environment

Opportunistic species

provide extensive care for their offspring

produce many offspring

reproduce later in life

What are the five agents of microevolution?

gamete production; mating; fertilization; caring for offspring; formation of herds

photosynthesis; respiration; mitosis; meiosis; fertilization

mutation; gene flow; nonrandom mating; genetic drift; natural selection

Microevolution is

new species

minor extinction of species

changes in allele frequency in a population

Which of the following is does not help defend against predators?

Toxins made by plants that injure caterpillars feeding on the plant

The large eyespots on a moth's wing that can startle a hungry bird

Thorns on a plant

Many plants have brightly colored fruit and flowers

Humans have a favored birth weight, neither too small nor too large. This is

stabilizing selection

disruptive selection

artificial selection

directional selection

What is a keystone species?

the first organism that populates an area

an organism upon which the entire ecosystem depends

the first fossils found in the earliest rock strata

As temperatures in the Arctic warm, which of the following changes may occur?

Tundra will be replaced by taiga

Taiga will be replaced by tundra

Temperate forest will be replaced by taiga

Tundra will be replaced by desert

Taiga will be replaced by temperate rain forest

What is desertification?

restoration of vegetation and water to deserts

areas adjacent to deserts also become deserts

abandonment of a habitat by animals

Evolution occurs at the level of

individuals

populations

communities

The maximum population that the environment can support is called the

biotic potential

environmental resistance

carrying capacity

replacement reproduction

demographic transition

A population with relatively more pre-reproductive individuals is common in _____-developed countries

less

Endangered species sometimes breed in captivity. Why are such species endangered in the wild?

Their population density is too high

Loss of habitat

Their environment is polluted

Abiotic components of an ecosystem include

only animal life

only plant life

living components only

nonliving components only

both living and nonliving components

Carbon returns to the atmosphere

as carbon dioxide

from respiration of plants

by the burning of fossil fuels

from respiration of animals

All of the answer choices are correct

Why does the Tropical Rain Forest contain an abundance of antibiotic compounds?

The area is crowded, leading to random production of useful compounds

The area is wet. plants had to develop resistance to fungi and bacterial infections

There is a great diversity of plants, leading to random production of useful compounds

The carrying capacity of the environment for a species is determined by

the reproductive rate of the organism

the number of organisms of that species

the state and national wildlife laws pertaining to that species

a complex

the limited productivity of the environment and the environmental resistance to the biotic potential of the organism

An introduced species that breeds and spreads is

resourceful

harmful

native

dominant

invasive

What is disruptive selection?

environmental influences that select against change

environmental influences that promote one phenotype versus all others

environmental influences that promote two or more phenotypes versus all others

Natural selection acts on

individuals

populations

communities

Two populations of birds live in the same area but have different sleep/wake cycles. This is

behavorial isolation

mechanical isolation

geographical isolation

temporal isolation

An insect that resembles the face of a snake avoids predation by

camouflage

warning coloration

mimicry

chemical defense

mutualism

Unselfish acts that help others in a group so that they increase their chances of surviving and reproducing is called

imprinting

mimicry

altruism

learning

instinct

If an environment changes rapidly, organisms with ____ will be more likely to survive and reproduce.

the correct allele frequency

existing neutral mutations

existing beneficial mutations

How did geology influence Darwinâs thoughts?

It demonstrated that the earth was very old, therefore there was enough time for species to evolve

it demonstrated that all continents were similar

it demonstrated the presence of many fossils

The founder effect occurs when

large groups of individuals leave their home population and establish new settlements, mating only among themselves

many members of a population die, resulting in a great loss of genetic diversity

many members of a population reproduce causing too much genetic diversity within the population

small groups of individuals leave their home population and establish new settlements, mating only among themselves.

The greenhouse effect is due to high atmospheric

Nitrogen

Ammonia

Carbon monoxide

Carbon dioxide

Oxygen

What are the Reproductive Barriers that keep species separate?

lack of food; lack of habitat; lack of potential mates; lack of nesting sites; lack of genetic variation

mountains; canyons; glaciers; bodies of water (for terrestrial animals); areas of land (for aquatic animals)

habitat isolation; temporal isolation; behavioral isolation; mechanical isolation; gamete isolation

What is directional selection?

environmental influences that select against change

environmental influences that promote one phenotype versus all others

environmental influences that promote two or more phenotypes versus all others

Which of the following is correct when describing a predator-prey cycle?

A decline in the numbers of predators causes a decline in the number of prey

A decline in the numbers of prey causes a decline in the number of predators

An increase in the number of predators triggers an increase in the number of prey

An up-and-down cycle will be seen for the prey animal

A seasonal die-off that will occur without the other species present

Why are top-level predators (lions, eagles, humans) so rare in a community?

Only a small amount of the energy is passed from one trophic level to the next

They do not breed as fast as other animals

Because of predation by higher predators

It is difficult for them to learn how to capture prey

Their job is to keep the population size of other animals in check

Alleles conferring bright color to male guppies are common because

they make males less visible to predators

they help males identify each other

they are preferred by females

Organisms that obtain their energy from producers or other consumers are

autotroph

heterotroph

producer

autotroph and producer

heterotroph and producer

What is the environmental impact of strip mining?

lack of trees exposes the surface of the earth, promoting runoff and loss of adjacent trees

removal of minerals from the soil hampers growth of vegetation

it causes a potential increase in volcanic activity

Two populations of squirrels are separated by a mountain range and would not be capable of interbreeding. This is an example of:

behavorial isolation

mechanical isolation

geographical isolation

temporal isolation

What is a danger of overfishing?

humans will become dependent upon fish

selection for smarter fish that can avoid being caught

driving the population back into the lag phase

What is meant by prezygotic versus postzygotic speciation mechanisms?

before versus after formation of a zygote

before versus after meiosis

before versus after gamete formation

The relatively short term changes in allele frequencies within a species or population is

artificial selection

microevolution.

speciation

macroevolution

Avoidance of a location with predators is the result of

imprinting

mimicry

altruism

learning

instinct

What is the difference between Density-Dependent and Density-Independent Factors on populations?

density-dependent factors exert a greater influence when there are more individuals; density-independent exerts the same influence on all individuals regardless of their number

density-dependent factors exert a greater influence on larger, more dense individuals; density-independent factors exert the same impact on individuals of all size

density-dependent factors exert the same influence on all individuals regardless of their number; density-independent factors exert a greater influence when there are more individuals regardless of their number

All of the organisms in a given location or area is termed a

peer group

flock

community

population

herd

The concentration of the pesticide DDT would be highest in

a minnow

a mosquito larva

a seagull

plankton

algae

Our biosphere is

the Earth

the atmosphere

the ocean

land on Earth

fresh and salt water

What is meant by âcarrying capacityâ?

the amount of food produced in an ecosystem

the extent of energy required to maintain an ecosystem

the number of individuals that can be supported by an ecosystem

Species living on another is

resource partitioning

coevolution

symbiosis

predation

niche sharing

One species feeding on another is

competition

a community

an ecosystem

predation

symbiosis

Populations of different species interacting with one another in a natural environment is called

competition

a community

a biome

predation

symbiosis

Which of the following is not a biogeochemical cycle?

ATP cycle

water cycle

carbon cycle

phosphorus cycle

nitrogen cycle

Horses became larger and faster to escape predators. This is

stabilizing selection

disruptive selection

artificial selection

directional selection

BIOL 110 Chapter Notes - Chapter 21: Allele Frequency, Genotype Frequency, Genetic Variation

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