PHIL 335 Lecture Notes - Lecture 8: Blood Test, Anencephaly, Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis
3 Jun 2018
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Unit 8
Current Canadian law outlaws any form of cloning. This includes creating replicas of cells, tissues, and
organisms. Even if cloning is used to harvest tissues for individuals who are already living and ill, it is not
allowed. Cloning is argued to be against the natural order of life, and a form of human arrogance. This
eas that huas thik e are superior ad hae the right to theoretically play God. I additio,
cloning may harm the cloned individuals both physically and psychologically. After all, Dolly the cloned
sheep only lived until four.
Genetic engineering and gene therapy are also outlawed and have never been tried in Canada.
There are two forms of gene therapy: somatic cell genetic engineering and germ-line
engineering. Somatic cell genetic engineering involves altering the individual’s genes without
affecting their germ cells; therefore, their offspring are not affected by the genetic alterations.
Germ-line genetic engineering changes an individual’s germ cells (which produce either sperm
or ova) and therefore, affects their offspring.
Stem cell therapy is allowed in Canada but can only be used in research under very controlled
circumstances. Stem cell therapy involves using cells that have the potential to differentiate into
almost any other cell. Embryonic cells, or cells taken from embryos, have the power to do this as
they are totipotent. Adult cells however are pluripotent only having the ability to change into a
limited number of other types of cells.
1. What are the weak and the strong senses of the right to reproduce? Do you agree or
disagree with Overall’s argument that only the weak version is defensible in Canada?
Why?
The strong sense of the right to reproduce revolves around the welfare of individuals who want
to reproduce. This includes providing women with all of the resources that they need to be able
to reproduce including assisted reproductive technologies. This can also include taking the eggs
of women who are able to reproduce and giving them to women to cannot, even by force. The
issue with this method of using procreative resources is that it actually may suggest that a child is
owed to each of us as humans. Secondly, providing everyone with the absolute ability to have
children with whatever means are necessary, may actually violate women’s right not to
reproduce as it gives individuals full access to the gametes of others.
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The weak sense of the right to reproduce simply gives individuals the liberty to reproduce if they
want. This includes the ability of women to choose how and where they want to give birth. The
weak sense of the right to reproduce is sometimes compromised by forcing women to have birth
at a hospital instead of at home. Other violations include coercively forcing women to use birth
control, enforcing racist marriage laws, and obviously forced sterilization. These violating tactics
prevent women from choosing who they want to reproduce with and when they want to do it.
I think it is accurate to say that Canadian law can only uphold the weak sense of the right to
reproduce. As we have the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, we cannot force
individuals to give up their gametes or help others to reproduce, as the strong sense would
demand. Instead, we can only ensure that every individual who wants to reproduce as the
opportunity to attempt reproduction. This means we cannot ban certain individuals from
reproducing at any point in time. As Canada allows gay marriage, does not currently participate
in forced sterilization, etc., we are currently upholding the weak sense of the right to reproduce.
1. Briefly describe two infertility interventions. What ethical issues do these particular
technologies raise?
There are multiple interventions that address infertility issues. These include artificial
insemination, donor insemination, in vitro fertilization, and contract pregnancy. The two that I
wish to examine are in vitro fertilization and contract pregnancy.
In vitro fertilization (IVF) involves creating an embryo outside of the woman’s body by
inseminating an egg with sperm. Multiple eggs are then implanted in the woman’s body to
increase her chances of becoming pregnant. The ethical issues associated with this type of
assisted reproductive technology (ART) mostly centre on what happens to the embryos that are
not implanted into the woman. Are these embryos frozen, discarded, or donated for research?
This depends on whether both the parents and physician deem the embryos as having moral
status. The question of whether embryos should have moral status is another concern. In
addition, IVF involves multiple risky procedures that could affect both the mother and the future
child. It is also rarely successful and ethical considerations should determine whether the
potential benefits outweigh the potential risks.
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Contract pregnancy involves using a surrogate mother to carry a fetus to term for a mother who
either cannot bear a child, carry a child, or does not wish to. Typically, IVF is used to insert a
fertilized egg (from separate father and mother) into a third party who will carry the fetus to
term. This can either be a commercial operation where the surrogate mother is paid or it can be
out of altruistic motives. One concern with contract pregnancy is whether the payment to the
third party for their gestational services is a payment for a child (aka buying a baby) or not.
Another concern is that the money paid may not actually reflect the risks assumed and the effort
required of surrogate mothers.
1. Briefly describe two diagnostic technologies. What ethical issues do these particular
technologies raise?
There are multiple kinds of diagnostic technologies that assist physicians in determining the
prenatal health of fetuses. Some of these include ultrasound, amniocentesis, chorionic villus
sampling (CVS), and material serum alpha-fetoprotein assay (MSAFP). The two that I would
like to discuss include CVS and MSAFP, as these technologies are not typically as well known.
CVS is a technology that occurs around the 10th-12th week of pregnancy and involves taking a
tissue sample from the placenta within the womb of the mother. This invasive procedure
involves taking these cells so that they can be tested for genetic abnormalities of the fetus. CVS
is usually only used for high-risk pregnancies although they are available upon request of the
fetus’ parents. These technologies are also almost always used for mothers who are over 35 years
as age as this age group of child-bearing women have been known to produce babies with
genetic abnormalities. Users of CVS must be concerned of both the physical and ethical concerns
regarding these technologies. First, CVS has the potential to actually cause miscarriages, fetal
anomalies, and harm to the mother. The ethical concerns regarding CVS involves all of these
physical risks. Essentially, is it morally acceptable to subject mothers and fetuses to this type of
invasive diagnostic testing if it is not absolutely essential? If the ultrasound does not reveal any
potential problems, or other types of less invasive testing, should we subject these babies to this
technology at the risk that they may die or become malformed? These are serious questions to
consider.
Next, MSAFP is a much less invasive procedure that usually occurs around the 16th to 18th weeks
of pregnancy. This technology simply involves taking a blood sample from the carrying mother.
Obviously, this is much less ethically concerning as blood analysis does not pose any obvious
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Document Summary
Current canadian law outlaws any form of cloning. This includes creating replicas of cells, tissues, and organisms. Even if cloning is used to harvest tissues for individuals who are already living and ill, it is not allowed. Cloning is argued to be against the natural order of life, and a form of human arrogance. This (cid:373)ea(cid:374)s that hu(cid:373)a(cid:374)s thi(cid:374)k (cid:449)e are superior a(cid:374)d ha(cid:448)e the right to theoretically (cid:862)play god(cid:863). I(cid:374) additio(cid:374), cloning may harm the cloned individuals both physically and psychologically. After all, dolly the cloned sheep only lived until four. Genetic engineering and gene therapy are also outlawed and have never been tried in canada. There are two forms of gene therapy: somatic cell genetic engineering and germ-line engineering. Somatic cell genetic engineering involves altering the individual"s genes without affecting their germ cells; therefore, their offspring are not affected by the genetic alterations.
