CHEM 181 Lecture Notes - Lecture 3: Samuel Pierpont Langley, Wright Brothers, Oswald Avery
19 Jun 2018
School
Department
Course
Professor
Video 1
Facts (1996-2011)
15 million active researchers
○
26 million publications
○
-
Half life of facts
Half life is how long it takes for a fact to change
○
Facts about our surroundings change
Language of science went to Latin to
German to English
§
In 100 years the planet has gone from 2
billion to 7 billion
§
In less than 50 years we have gone from
earthbound to walking on the mood
§
○
-
Popeye
Ate spinach for his strength due to the fact that
it was thought that was a lot of iron in spinach
○
German chemist Erich von Wolf calculated the
iron content in spinach as 3.5mg in a 100g of
serving, but there was a decimal point saying
that there was 35mg in 100g serving and people
capitalized on this
○
There is no vitamin A in spinach, it is converted
by the body which is converted beta-carotene
into Vitamin A and green colour of the
chlorophyll masks the gold colour
○
-
Theories
Can use facts to predict what will happen in the
future
○
In order to overcome a theory you need to make
a hypothesis
○
-
How do we get our information?
Memory accuracy is an issue
People do not remember accurately
because of what is being filmed by
cellphones, etc.
§
○
TV, radio, internet, texting, magazines,
newspapers, lecture series, journals
○
-
Video 2a
Wright brothers flew the plane in Kitty Hawk, NC (Dec
17, 1903)
Flew 120ft over 12 seconds
○
-
Simultaneous discoveries often happen but they don’t
get equal credit due to ego and publication issues
-
Simultaneous discoveries
Started flying in Italy a few years later, Charles
Lindburg flew across the Atlantic by himself,
○
-
Samuel Langley flew a steam powered plane years
before the Wright brothers
The brothers were the first to have a person
aboard their flight so they were given credit
instead of Langley
○
Otto Lillienthal deserved credit too
○
Whitehead flew a plane father and higher than
the Wright brothers but there was no
photographic evidence so he didn’t get the
credit
○
-
Video 2b
DNA story
Most people think of DNA and they think of
Watson and Crick
○
DNA was discovered by Frederich Miescher in
1869, and Watson and Crick discovered it 50
years later
Miescher didn't fit the category of being
fat, carb, protein but was never able to
figure out what it was
§
Wasn't until years later he was able to
publish his results and present the first
DNA material
§
○
1940s Oswald Avery never got much credit
because he was a mild manner guy
Published an article in 1944 to show DNA
was a substance that had replication
capacity
§
Got the attention of Watson and Crick
years later
§
○
-
Linus Pauling
Famous chemist who published an article of the
proposed subject of the nucleic acid but he
happened to be incorrect
○
Watson and Crick came up with the right answer
a year or so later
○
-
Credit issues
X ray christleolography is used to determine the
structure of DNA
Contributed to the shape of the DNA
because it showed an X
§
○
Rosalind Franklin did not get credit for her
contribution because she passed away and was
not able to receive the award
○
Third person who won the Nobel prize with
Watson and Crick who was Maurice Wilkins
(research supervisor of Rosalind Franklin)
○
-
Collaboration works very well (ego)
Share the prospects (stop having an ego and
give credit where it is deserved overall)
○
Pauling proposed the structure and spent the
rest of his life fussing about it because it was
incorrect
○
50 years after his Baker lectures he was asked
back to give lecture as a 50th anniversary, he
had a huge space in his lecture and it was long
enough that people were questioning his
knowledge (senior moment - forgot a word)
○
He was working at the same time as Watson and
Crick were but he got beat by Watson and Crick
Did not have access to x - ray photographs
and experimental information
§
Couldn't get access to Franklin's
photographs
§
He wasn't working very hard at it - ego!!
§
○
-
Activity 1
Based on the two examples of scientific discovery
presented in the previous video segment, which of the
following is the best definition for ‘simultaneous
discovery’?
Scientific discoveries are made independently
that occur more or less at the same time by
multiple scientists
An example of this is the Theory of
Evolution of the Species by Charles Darwin
and Alfred Russell Wallace
§
○
-
In the discussion of the discovery of DNA presented in
the previous video, the work of Avery Oswald and
Watson & Crick represent a case of simultaneous
discovery.
False
Oswald’s work was a precursor to the
work of Watson & Crick. In identifying the
transformative nature of DNA, Oswald’s
work provided valuable input in helping
Watson and Crick develop their model of
the structure of DNA.
§
○
-
Video 3
Journals are peer reviewed and have been looked at
by experts in their field
Journal of the Chemical Society in the UK was
the first peer reviewed journal in 1843
○
-
Types of publications:
Journals
○
Books reviews
○
Full papers
○
Notes
○
Communications
○
-
Activity 2
A short descript description of important current
research findings (communication)
-
A complete description of current research findings
(full paper)
-
A short description of current research findings that
are considered less urgent or important (note)
-
Video 4a
Researcher starts with an idea and then puts the idea
in writing to get funding
-
A grant is secured, time passes, there is a result, there
is time to publish a communication
-
Peer review
Researcher has to contend with an editor and
one or more referees
○
Referee reads and judges the paper, they do not
redo the work
Judge if they think the references are
appropriate, if credit has been given, if it
reads properly, that there are no spelling
errors and that facts are appropriate and
they lead to the correct conclusion
§
○
Researcher sends the paper to the editor and
the editor selects 2 - 3 people to review the
paper (referee)
○
The referee sends back the comments to the
editor
○
The editor may decide to publish or they may
have comments to make about what the referee
has said and then the data gets sent to the
researcher, but usually the researcher has to
rebut some of the comments that the referee
has made
○
Researcher sends it back to the editor and
usually the editor makes a decision about
whether the paper will be published or not
○
The referees identity does not become known to
the researcher
○
-
Sir Hans Adolf Krebs got his paper rejected
He eventually won a noble prize for the Krebs
cycle
○
-
Video 4b
A communication
Names on publications
The name that goes first is the primary
author (medicine)
§
In Chemistry, the last author is the main
author (senior author)
*is applied to the senior author so
one knows where to direct
information
□
§
The number of names that can be on a
paper varies tremendously
§
○
-
Extended life of research
Summaries of research that can be indexed and
found on the internet
○
-
Activity 3
Researcher submits paper to journal1.
Editor reads paper and identifies Referee2.
Editor sends paper to Referee for review3.
Referee reviews the paper and sends it back to Editor with
comments
4.
Editor reviews comments from Referee5.
Editor makes a decision and sends a rejection notice to
Researcher
6.
Activity 4
Approximately how many scientific research papers are
published per year? 1.8 - 1.9 million
Video 5
Archives
Cards made their ways into libraries for chemical
abstract
○
The majority of scientific papers that are
published are honest efforts to report the facts
○
-
The article may be accurate but the headline might
distort that to sell papers
-
Mistakes get made, amplification of information is
overhyped
-
Video 6
Observational studies (epidemiological studies):
studies where the assignment of subjects is not
controlled by the investigator
Case control studies: compare people with a
specific condition to other people who are
otherwise similar except for that condition
Compare people with cancer vs. people
who do not have cancer and see what may
have been responsible for the difference
§
Retrospective studies: you always look
back on the study in order to find an
association between a disease and
lifestyle
§
Example: association between smoking
and lung cancer
§
○
Cohort study: a small group of people over a
long period of time to determine which factor
may be associated with the appearance of a
specific condition
At the onset of the study, there is no
indication of any problem
§
Prospective study: stronger in validity than
case control study
§
Example: EPIC (European Perspective
Investigation into Cancer) study involving
520,000 people in 10 European countries
suggests that increased intake of fruits
and vegetables has a minimal effect on
cancer rates - this was not confirmed
§
○
Correlation vs. causation
Correlation: there is a link between two
things, but it doesn’t prove causation
§
To prove causation you need to have a
stronger study
§
○
-
Interventional study: assignment of subjects is
controlled by the investigator
Example: vitamin D and calcium
supplementation reduces cancer risk: results of
a randomized trial
○
Interventional controlled study: double blind
randomized placebo-controlled study
Placebo response: if people believe
something they take of benefit they will
feel better (30% of cases this happens)
§
Blind study: divide group into two, one
group will get the drug you want to test
and the other one will get a placebo
§
Double blind study: prevent the
researcher from having an influence on
the subject
§
Double blind randomized placebo
controlled study: pick the subject and the
subject is random
§
○
-
Meta analysis: look at a number of studies (same
studies) and pool the data from the studies in order to
get more data
Pool cancer studies and found that there was a
lower risk of cancer with vitamin D
○
-
Activity 5
Abstract: To determine a possible relationship
between caffeine consumption and age at onset (AAO)
in HD, we retrospectively assessed caffeine
consumption in 80 HD patients using a dietary survey
and determined relationship with AAO. Following
adjustment for gender, smoking status and CAG
repeat length, caffeine consumption greater than
190mg/day was significantly associated with an earlier
AAO.
Case control study
○
-
Methods: We focused on research investigating the
effects of sugar-sweetened beverages; diet and
artificially sweetened beverages are noted only in
certain cases for comparison purposes. We conducted
a computer search through MEDLINE and PsycINFO
using the key terms “soft drink,” “soda,” and
“sweetened beverage.” We identified articles that
assessed the association of soft drink consumption
with 4 primary outcomes (energy intake, body weight,
milk intake, and calcium intake) and 2 secondary
outcomes (nutrition and health). We identified
additional articles by searching each article’s reference
section and the Web of Science database. Finally, we
contacted the authors of each included article with a
request for unpublished or in-press work, and we
asked each author to forward our request to other
researchers who might have relevant work. Our
searches yielded a total of 88 articles that were
included in the present analysis.
Meta analysis study
○
-
Abstract: We examined the rate of relapse, as a
variable index, in patients with urinary tract infection
(UTI) who suffered from multiple relapses when using
cranberry juice (UR65). A randomized, placebo-
controlled, double-blind study was conducted from
October 2007 to September 2009 in Japan. The
subjects were outpatients aged 20 to 79 years who
were randomly divided into two groups. One group
received cranberry juice (group A) and the other a
placebo beverage (group P). To keep the conditions
blind, the color and taste of the beverages were
adjusted.
Interventional study
○
-
Design: A total of 33,638 initially healthy women who
participated in the Women's Health Study and who
were gt 45 y of age and free of cardiovascular disease
and AF [atrial fibrillation] at baseline were
prospectively followed for incident AF from 1993 to 2
March 2009. All women provided information on
caffeine intake via food-frequency questionnaires at
baseline and in 2004.
Cohort study
○
-
Methods: MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane
Central Register of Controlled Trials were systemically
searched from inception to November 2011 for
randomized controlled trials that compared
prevention of UTIs in users of cranberry-containing
products vs placebo or nonplacebo controls. There
were no restrictions for language, population, or
publication year.
Meta analysis study
○
-
Methods: The period of data collection was
1989–1992 that included subjects who visited TMH
[Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai, India] for diagnosis
and treatment. Patients were interviewed at the out-
patient department of TMH, prior to diagnosis. The
information was recorded in a pre-designed
questionnaire that included demographic
characteristics (age, sex, religion, etc.), life-style
(habits such as smoking, chewing, alcohol drinking,
etc.), dietary habits and dietary items. After
interviewing the patient, cancer cases and controls
were segregated based on the diagnosis. […] there
were 203 cases of ‘colorectal’ cancers and 1628
controls (unmatched) that were considered as eligible
entrants for this study. The questionnaire contained
socio-demographic information, life-style habits like
chewing, smoking, alcohol consumption and dietary
items. The questionnaire on food items were based on
recollection of consumption of routine food items
prior to 1-year of the date of interview. Information on
food frequency per week was also collected.
Case control study
○
-
Lecture 1 -Topic 3
Thursday, January 18, 2018
7:04 PM
Video 1
Facts (1996-2011)
15 million active researchers
○
26 million publications
○
-
Half life of facts
Half life is how long it takes for a fact to change
○
Facts about our surroundings change
Language of science went to Latin to
German to English
§
In 100 years the planet has gone from 2
billion to 7 billion
§
In less than 50 years we have gone from
earthbound to walking on the mood
§
○
-
Popeye
Ate spinach for his strength due to the fact that
it was thought that was a lot of iron in spinach
○
German chemist Erich von Wolf calculated the
iron content in spinach as 3.5mg in a 100g of
serving, but there was a decimal point saying
that there was 35mg in 100g serving and people
capitalized on this
○
There is no vitamin A in spinach, it is converted
by the body which is converted beta-carotene
into Vitamin A and green colour of the
chlorophyll masks the gold colour
○
-
Theories
Can use facts to predict what will happen in the
future
○
In order to overcome a theory you need to make
a hypothesis
○
-
How do we get our information?
Memory accuracy is an issue
People do not remember accurately
because of what is being filmed by
cellphones, etc.
§
○
TV, radio, internet, texting, magazines,
newspapers, lecture series, journals
○
-
Video 2a
Wright brothers flew the plane in Kitty Hawk, NC (Dec
17, 1903)
Flew 120ft over 12 seconds
○
-
Simultaneous discoveries often happen but they don’t
get equal credit due to ego and publication issues
-
Simultaneous discoveries
Started flying in Italy a few years later, Charles
Lindburg flew across the Atlantic by himself,
○
-
Samuel Langley flew a steam powered plane years
before the Wright brothers
The brothers were the first to have a person
aboard their flight so they were given credit
instead of Langley
○
Otto Lillienthal deserved credit too
○
Whitehead flew a plane father and higher than
the Wright brothers but there was no
photographic evidence so he didn’t get the
credit
○
-
Video 2b
DNA story
Most people think of DNA and they think of
Watson and Crick
○
DNA was discovered by Frederich Miescher in
1869, and Watson and Crick discovered it 50
years later
Miescher didn't fit the category of being
fat, carb, protein but was never able to
figure out what it was
§
Wasn't until years later he was able to
publish his results and present the first
DNA material
§
○
1940s Oswald Avery never got much credit
because he was a mild manner guy
Published an article in 1944 to show DNA
was a substance that had replication
capacity
§
Got the attention of Watson and Crick
years later
§
○
-
Linus Pauling
Famous chemist who published an article of the
proposed subject of the nucleic acid but he
happened to be incorrect
○
Watson and Crick came up with the right answer
a year or so later
○
-
Credit issues
X ray christleolography is used to determine the
structure of DNA
Contributed to the shape of the DNA
because it showed an X
§
○
Rosalind Franklin did not get credit for her
contribution because she passed away and was
not able to receive the award
○
Third person who won the Nobel prize with
Watson and Crick who was Maurice Wilkins
(research supervisor of Rosalind Franklin)
○
-
Collaboration works very well (ego)
Share the prospects (stop having an ego and
give credit where it is deserved overall)
○
Pauling proposed the structure and spent the
rest of his life fussing about it because it was
incorrect
○
50 years after his Baker lectures he was asked
back to give lecture as a 50th anniversary, he
had a huge space in his lecture and it was long
enough that people were questioning his
knowledge (senior moment - forgot a word)
○
He was working at the same time as Watson and
Crick were but he got beat by Watson and Crick
Did not have access to x - ray photographs
and experimental information
§
Couldn't get access to Franklin's
photographs
§
He wasn't working very hard at it - ego!!
§
○
-
Activity 1
Based on the two examples of scientific discovery
presented in the previous video segment, which of the
following is the best definition for ‘simultaneous
discovery’?
Scientific discoveries are made independently
that occur more or less at the same time by
multiple scientists
An example of this is the Theory of
Evolution of the Species by Charles Darwin
and Alfred Russell Wallace
§
○
-
In the discussion of the discovery of DNA presented in
the previous video, the work of Avery Oswald and
Watson & Crick represent a case of simultaneous
discovery.
False
Oswald’s work was a precursor to the
work of Watson & Crick. In identifying the
transformative nature of DNA, Oswald’s
work provided valuable input in helping
Watson and Crick develop their model of
the structure of DNA.
§
○
-
Video 3
Journals are peer reviewed and have been looked at
by experts in their field
Journal of the Chemical Society in the UK was
the first peer reviewed journal in 1843
○
-
Types of publications:
Journals
○
Books reviews
○
Full papers
○
Notes
○
Communications
○
-
Activity 2
A short descript description of important current
research findings (communication)
-
A complete description of current research findings
(full paper)
-
A short description of current research findings that
are considered less urgent or important (note)
-
Video 4a
Researcher starts with an idea and then puts the idea
in writing to get funding
-
A grant is secured, time passes, there is a result, there
is time to publish a communication
-
Peer review
Researcher has to contend with an editor and
one or more referees
○
Referee reads and judges the paper, they do not
redo the work
Judge if they think the references are
appropriate, if credit has been given, if it
reads properly, that there are no spelling
errors and that facts are appropriate and
they lead to the correct conclusion
§
○
Researcher sends the paper to the editor and
the editor selects 2 - 3 people to review the
paper (referee)
○
The referee sends back the comments to the
editor
○
The editor may decide to publish or they may
have comments to make about what the referee
has said and then the data gets sent to the
researcher, but usually the researcher has to
rebut some of the comments that the referee
has made
○
Researcher sends it back to the editor and
usually the editor makes a decision about
whether the paper will be published or not
○
The referees identity does not become known to
the researcher
○
-
Sir Hans Adolf Krebs got his paper rejected
He eventually won a noble prize for the Krebs
cycle
○
-
Video 4b
A communication
Names on publications
The name that goes first is the primary
author (medicine)
§
In Chemistry, the last author is the main
author (senior author)
*is applied to the senior author so
one knows where to direct
information
□
§
The number of names that can be on a
paper varies tremendously
§
○
-
Extended life of research
Summaries of research that can be indexed and
found on the internet
○
-
Activity 3
Researcher submits paper to journal1.
Editor reads paper and identifies Referee2.
Editor sends paper to Referee for review3.
Referee reviews the paper and sends it back to Editor with
comments
4.
Editor reviews comments from Referee5.
Editor makes a decision and sends a rejection notice to
Researcher
6.
Activity 4
Approximately how many scientific research papers are
published per year? 1.8 - 1.9 million
Video 5
Archives
Cards made their ways into libraries for chemical
abstract
○
The majority of scientific papers that are
published are honest efforts to report the facts
○
-
The article may be accurate but the headline might
distort that to sell papers
-
Mistakes get made, amplification of information is
overhyped
-
Video 6
Observational studies (epidemiological studies):
studies where the assignment of subjects is not
controlled by the investigator
Case control studies: compare people with a
specific condition to other people who are
otherwise similar except for that condition
Compare people with cancer vs. people
who do not have cancer and see what may
have been responsible for the difference
§
Retrospective studies: you always look
back on the study in order to find an
association between a disease and
lifestyle
§
Example: association between smoking
and lung cancer
§
○
Cohort study: a small group of people over a
long period of time to determine which factor
may be associated with the appearance of a
specific condition
At the onset of the study, there is no
indication of any problem
§
Prospective study: stronger in validity than
case control study
§
Example: EPIC (European Perspective
Investigation into Cancer) study involving
520,000 people in 10 European countries
suggests that increased intake of fruits
and vegetables has a minimal effect on
cancer rates - this was not confirmed
§
○
Correlation vs. causation
Correlation: there is a link between two
things, but it doesn’t prove causation
§
To prove causation you need to have a
stronger study
§
○
-
Interventional study: assignment of subjects is
controlled by the investigator
Example: vitamin D and calcium
supplementation reduces cancer risk: results of
a randomized trial
○
Interventional controlled study: double blind
randomized placebo-controlled study
Placebo response: if people believe
something they take of benefit they will
feel better (30% of cases this happens)
§
Blind study: divide group into two, one
group will get the drug you want to test
and the other one will get a placebo
§
Double blind study: prevent the
researcher from having an influence on
the subject
§
Double blind randomized placebo
controlled study: pick the subject and the
subject is random
§
○
-
Meta analysis: look at a number of studies (same
studies) and pool the data from the studies in order to
get more data
Pool cancer studies and found that there was a
lower risk of cancer with vitamin D
○
-
Activity 5
Abstract: To determine a possible relationship
between caffeine consumption and age at onset (AAO)
in HD, we retrospectively assessed caffeine
consumption in 80 HD patients using a dietary survey
and determined relationship with AAO. Following
adjustment for gender, smoking status and CAG
repeat length, caffeine consumption greater than
190mg/day was significantly associated with an earlier
AAO.
Case control study
○
-
Methods: We focused on research investigating the
effects of sugar-sweetened beverages; diet and
artificially sweetened beverages are noted only in
certain cases for comparison purposes. We conducted
a computer search through MEDLINE and PsycINFO
using the key terms “soft drink,” “soda,” and
“sweetened beverage.” We identified articles that
assessed the association of soft drink consumption
with 4 primary outcomes (energy intake, body weight,
milk intake, and calcium intake) and 2 secondary
outcomes (nutrition and health). We identified
additional articles by searching each article’s reference
section and the Web of Science database. Finally, we
contacted the authors of each included article with a
request for unpublished or in-press work, and we
asked each author to forward our request to other
researchers who might have relevant work. Our
searches yielded a total of 88 articles that were
included in the present analysis.
Meta analysis study
○
-
Abstract: We examined the rate of relapse, as a
variable index, in patients with urinary tract infection
(UTI) who suffered from multiple relapses when using
cranberry juice (UR65). A randomized, placebo-
controlled, double-blind study was conducted from
October 2007 to September 2009 in Japan. The
subjects were outpatients aged 20 to 79 years who
were randomly divided into two groups. One group
received cranberry juice (group A) and the other a
placebo beverage (group P). To keep the conditions
blind, the color and taste of the beverages were
adjusted.
Interventional study
○
-
Design: A total of 33,638 initially healthy women who
participated in the Women's Health Study and who
were gt 45 y of age and free of cardiovascular disease
and AF [atrial fibrillation] at baseline were
prospectively followed for incident AF from 1993 to 2
March 2009. All women provided information on
caffeine intake via food-frequency questionnaires at
baseline and in 2004.
Cohort study
○
-
Methods: MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane
Central Register of Controlled Trials were systemically
searched from inception to November 2011 for
randomized controlled trials that compared
prevention of UTIs in users of cranberry-containing
products vs placebo or nonplacebo controls. There
were no restrictions for language, population, or
publication year.
Meta analysis study
○
-
Methods: The period of data collection was
1989–1992 that included subjects who visited TMH
[Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai, India] for diagnosis
and treatment. Patients were interviewed at the out-
patient department of TMH, prior to diagnosis. The
information was recorded in a pre-designed
questionnaire that included demographic
characteristics (age, sex, religion, etc.), life-style
(habits such as smoking, chewing, alcohol drinking,
etc.), dietary habits and dietary items. After
interviewing the patient, cancer cases and controls
were segregated based on the diagnosis. […] there
were 203 cases of ‘colorectal’ cancers and 1628
controls (unmatched) that were considered as eligible
entrants for this study. The questionnaire contained
socio-demographic information, life-style habits like
chewing, smoking, alcohol consumption and dietary
items. The questionnaire on food items were based on
recollection of consumption of routine food items
prior to 1-year of the date of interview. Information on
food frequency per week was also collected.
Case control study
○
-
Lecture 1 -Topic 3
Thursday, January 18, 2018 7:04 PM
Video 1
Facts (1996-2011)
15 million active researchers
○
26 million publications
○
-
Half life of facts
Half life is how long it takes for a fact to change
○
Facts about our surroundings change
Language of science went to Latin to
German to English
§
In 100 years the planet has gone from 2
billion to 7 billion
§
In less than 50 years we have gone from
earthbound to walking on the mood
§
○
-
Popeye
Ate spinach for his strength due to the fact that
it was thought that was a lot of iron in spinach
○
German chemist Erich von Wolf calculated the
iron content in spinach as 3.5mg in a 100g of
serving, but there was a decimal point saying
that there was 35mg in 100g serving and people
capitalized on this
○
There is no vitamin A in spinach, it is converted
by the body which is converted beta-carotene
into Vitamin A and green colour of the
chlorophyll masks the gold colour
○
-
Theories
Can use facts to predict what will happen in the
future
○
In order to overcome a theory you need to make
a hypothesis
○
-
How do we get our information?
Memory accuracy is an issue
People do not remember accurately
because of what is being filmed by
cellphones, etc.
§
○
TV, radio, internet, texting, magazines,
newspapers, lecture series, journals
○
-
Video 2a
Wright brothers flew the plane in Kitty Hawk, NC (Dec
17, 1903)
Flew 120ft over 12 seconds
○
-
Simultaneous discoveries often happen but they don’t
get equal credit due to ego and publication issues
-
Simultaneous discoveries
Started flying in Italy a few years later, Charles
Lindburg flew across the Atlantic by himself,
○
-
Samuel Langley flew a steam powered plane years
before the Wright brothers
The brothers were the first to have a person
aboard their flight so they were given credit
instead of Langley
○
Otto Lillienthal deserved credit too
○
Whitehead flew a plane father and higher than
the Wright brothers but there was no
photographic evidence so he didn’t get the
credit
○
-
Video 2b
DNA story
Most people think of DNA and they think of
Watson and Crick
○
DNA was discovered by Frederich Miescher in
1869, and Watson and Crick discovered it 50
years later
Miescher didn't fit the category of being
fat, carb, protein but was never able to
figure out what it was
§
Wasn't until years later he was able to
publish his results and present the first
DNA material
§
○
1940s Oswald Avery never got much credit
because he was a mild manner guy
Published an article in 1944 to show DNA
was a substance that had replication
capacity
§
Got the attention of Watson and Crick
years later
§
○
-
Linus Pauling
Famous chemist who published an article of the
proposed subject of the nucleic acid but he
happened to be incorrect
○
Watson and Crick came up with the right answer
a year or so later
○
-
Credit issues
X ray christleolography is used to determine the
structure of DNA
Contributed to the shape of the DNA
because it showed an X
§
○
Rosalind Franklin did not get credit for her
contribution because she passed away and was
not able to receive the award
○
Third person who won the Nobel prize with
Watson and Crick who was Maurice Wilkins
(research supervisor of Rosalind Franklin)
○
-
Collaboration works very well (ego)
Share the prospects (stop having an ego and
give credit where it is deserved overall)
○
Pauling proposed the structure and spent the
rest of his life fussing about it because it was
incorrect
○
50 years after his Baker lectures he was asked
back to give lecture as a 50th anniversary, he
had a huge space in his lecture and it was long
enough that people were questioning his
knowledge (senior moment - forgot a word)
○
He was working at the same time as Watson and
Crick were but he got beat by Watson and Crick
Did not have access to x - ray photographs
and experimental information
§
Couldn't get access to Franklin's
photographs
§
He wasn't working very hard at it - ego!!
§
○
-
Activity 1
Based on the two examples of scientific discovery
presented in the previous video segment, which of the
following is the best definition for ‘simultaneous
discovery’?
Scientific discoveries are made independently
that occur more or less at the same time by
multiple scientists
An example of this is the Theory of
Evolution of the Species by Charles Darwin
and Alfred Russell Wallace
§
○
-
In the discussion of the discovery of DNA presented in
the previous video, the work of Avery Oswald and
Watson & Crick represent a case of simultaneous
discovery.
False
Oswald’s work was a precursor to the
work of Watson & Crick. In identifying the
transformative nature of DNA, Oswald’s
work provided valuable input in helping
Watson and Crick develop their model of
the structure of DNA.
§
○
-
Video 3
Journals are peer reviewed and have been looked at
by experts in their field
Journal of the Chemical Society in the UK was
the first peer reviewed journal in 1843
○
-
Types of publications:
Journals
○
Books reviews
○
Full papers
○
Notes
○
Communications
○
-
Activity 2
A short descript description of important current
research findings (communication)
-
A complete description of current research findings
(full paper)
-
A short description of current research findings that
are considered less urgent or important (note)
-
Video 4a
Researcher starts with an idea and then puts the idea
in writing to get funding
-
A grant is secured, time passes, there is a result, there
is time to publish a communication
-
Peer review
Researcher has to contend with an editor and
one or more referees
○
Referee reads and judges the paper, they do not
redo the work
Judge if they think the references are
appropriate, if credit has been given, if it
reads properly, that there are no spelling
errors and that facts are appropriate and
they lead to the correct conclusion
§
○
Researcher sends the paper to the editor and
the editor selects 2 - 3 people to review the
paper (referee)
○
The referee sends back the comments to the
editor
○
The editor may decide to publish or they may
have comments to make about what the referee
has said and then the data gets sent to the
researcher, but usually the researcher has to
rebut some of the comments that the referee
has made
○
Researcher sends it back to the editor and
usually the editor makes a decision about
whether the paper will be published or not
○
The referees identity does not become known to
the researcher
○
-
Sir Hans Adolf Krebs got his paper rejected
He eventually won a noble prize for the Krebs
cycle
○
-
Video 4b
A communication
Names on publications
The name that goes first is the primary
author (medicine)
§
In Chemistry, the last author is the main
author (senior author)
*is applied to the senior author so
one knows where to direct
information
□
§
The number of names that can be on a
paper varies tremendously
§
○
-
Extended life of research
Summaries of research that can be indexed and
found on the internet
○
-
Activity 3
Researcher submits paper to journal1.
Editor reads paper and identifies Referee2.
Editor sends paper to Referee for review3.
Referee reviews the paper and sends it back to Editor with
comments
4.
Editor reviews comments from Referee5.
Editor makes a decision and sends a rejection notice to
Researcher
6.
Activity 4
Approximately how many scientific research papers are
published per year? 1.8 - 1.9 million
Video 5
Archives
Cards made their ways into libraries for chemical
abstract
○
The majority of scientific papers that are
published are honest efforts to report the facts
○
-
The article may be accurate but the headline might
distort that to sell papers
-
Mistakes get made, amplification of information is
overhyped
-
Video 6
Observational studies (epidemiological studies):
studies where the assignment of subjects is not
controlled by the investigator
Case control studies: compare people with a
specific condition to other people who are
otherwise similar except for that condition
Compare people with cancer vs. people
who do not have cancer and see what may
have been responsible for the difference
§
Retrospective studies: you always look
back on the study in order to find an
association between a disease and
lifestyle
§
Example: association between smoking
and lung cancer
§
○
Cohort study: a small group of people over a
long period of time to determine which factor
may be associated with the appearance of a
specific condition
At the onset of the study, there is no
indication of any problem
§
Prospective study: stronger in validity than
case control study
§
Example: EPIC (European Perspective
Investigation into Cancer) study involving
520,000 people in 10 European countries
suggests that increased intake of fruits
and vegetables has a minimal effect on
cancer rates - this was not confirmed
§
○
Correlation vs. causation
Correlation: there is a link between two
things, but it doesn’t prove causation
§
To prove causation you need to have a
stronger study
§
○
-
Interventional study: assignment of subjects is
controlled by the investigator
Example: vitamin D and calcium
supplementation reduces cancer risk: results of
a randomized trial
○
Interventional controlled study: double blind
randomized placebo-controlled study
Placebo response: if people believe
something they take of benefit they will
feel better (30% of cases this happens)
§
Blind study: divide group into two, one
group will get the drug you want to test
and the other one will get a placebo
§
Double blind study: prevent the
researcher from having an influence on
the subject
§
Double blind randomized placebo
controlled study: pick the subject and the
subject is random
§
○
-
Meta analysis: look at a number of studies (same
studies) and pool the data from the studies in order to
get more data
Pool cancer studies and found that there was a
lower risk of cancer with vitamin D
○
-
Activity 5
Abstract: To determine a possible relationship
between caffeine consumption and age at onset (AAO)
in HD, we retrospectively assessed caffeine
consumption in 80 HD patients using a dietary survey
and determined relationship with AAO. Following
adjustment for gender, smoking status and CAG
repeat length, caffeine consumption greater than
190mg/day was significantly associated with an earlier
AAO.
Case control study
○
-
Methods: We focused on research investigating the
effects of sugar-sweetened beverages; diet and
artificially sweetened beverages are noted only in
certain cases for comparison purposes. We conducted
a computer search through MEDLINE and PsycINFO
using the key terms “soft drink,” “soda,” and
“sweetened beverage.” We identified articles that
assessed the association of soft drink consumption
with 4 primary outcomes (energy intake, body weight,
milk intake, and calcium intake) and 2 secondary
outcomes (nutrition and health). We identified
additional articles by searching each article’s reference
section and the Web of Science database. Finally, we
contacted the authors of each included article with a
request for unpublished or in-press work, and we
asked each author to forward our request to other
researchers who might have relevant work. Our
searches yielded a total of 88 articles that were
included in the present analysis.
Meta analysis study
○
-
Abstract: We examined the rate of relapse, as a
variable index, in patients with urinary tract infection
(UTI) who suffered from multiple relapses when using
cranberry juice (UR65). A randomized, placebo-
controlled, double-blind study was conducted from
October 2007 to September 2009 in Japan. The
subjects were outpatients aged 20 to 79 years who
were randomly divided into two groups. One group
received cranberry juice (group A) and the other a
placebo beverage (group P). To keep the conditions
blind, the color and taste of the beverages were
adjusted.
Interventional study
○
-
Design: A total of 33,638 initially healthy women who
participated in the Women's Health Study and who
were gt 45 y of age and free of cardiovascular disease
and AF [atrial fibrillation] at baseline were
prospectively followed for incident AF from 1993 to 2
March 2009. All women provided information on
caffeine intake via food-frequency questionnaires at
baseline and in 2004.
Cohort study
○
-
Methods: MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane
Central Register of Controlled Trials were systemically
searched from inception to November 2011 for
randomized controlled trials that compared
prevention of UTIs in users of cranberry-containing
products vs placebo or nonplacebo controls. There
were no restrictions for language, population, or
publication year.
Meta analysis study
○
-
Methods: The period of data collection was
1989–1992 that included subjects who visited TMH
[Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai, India] for diagnosis
and treatment. Patients were interviewed at the out-
patient department of TMH, prior to diagnosis. The
information was recorded in a pre-designed
questionnaire that included demographic
characteristics (age, sex, religion, etc.), life-style
(habits such as smoking, chewing, alcohol drinking,
etc.), dietary habits and dietary items. After
interviewing the patient, cancer cases and controls
were segregated based on the diagnosis. […] there
were 203 cases of ‘colorectal’ cancers and 1628
controls (unmatched) that were considered as eligible
entrants for this study. The questionnaire contained
socio-demographic information, life-style habits like
chewing, smoking, alcohol consumption and dietary
items. The questionnaire on food items were based on
recollection of consumption of routine food items
prior to 1-year of the date of interview. Information on
food frequency per week was also collected.
Case control study
○
-
Lecture 1 -Topic 3
Thursday, January 18, 2018 7:04 PM
11
CHEM 181 Full Course Notes
Verified Note
11 documents
Document Summary
Half life is how long it takes for a fact to change. In 100 years the planet has gone from 2 billion to 7 billion. In less than 50 years we have gone from earthbound to walking on the mood. Ate spinach for his strength due to the fact that it was thought that was a lot of iron in spinach. German chemist erich von wolf calculated the iron content in spinach as 3. 5mg in a 100g of serving, but there was a decimal point saying that there was 35mg in 100g serving and people capitalized on this. There is no vitamin a in spinach, it is converted by the body which is converted beta-carotene into vitamin a and green colour of the chlorophyll masks the gold colour. Can use facts to predict what will happen in the future. In order to overcome a theory you need to make a hypothesis.
