PSYC 330
March 11 , 2014
Lecture Seven: Orientating Attention in Space (Spatial Attention)
The Spotlight Metaphor
A good account for moving attention around in space
The idea that we can look in one direction but paying attention somewhere else
Sometimes called “Peripheral vision”
• E.g. Driving ▯Looking ahead to the car in front of you but paying
attention to your surroundings (cars to beside you, pedestrians, signs and
etc.)
• E.g. Social Situations ▯Talking to someone and you’re looking straight at
them, but something else catches your eye and you don’t want to be rude
The study of moving attention around in space ▯Behaviorisms’ big nono because it’s
not observable (behaviourism is dependent on where our eyes are pointing to
“observable”)
Orienting
Distinguished between:
• Shifts of attention that occur in synchrony with changes in body position
• Shifts of attention that occur independently of body position
Orienting of Attention
We can shift our attention slightly to the side of where our eyes are pointing
• “Using peripheral vision”
• “Looking out of the corner of the eye”
• Common part of early introspective psychology (Wilhelm Wundt, 1912)
• Aristotle also talked about it
Studying Orienting Response
During the Behaviourist Era, when studying attention was not very popular
People studied the orienting responses of animals towards stimuli that capture their
attention (E.g. Pavlov’s Classical Condition Experiment with Dogs and Salivation)
• Orienting is an adjustment of the animal’s position relative to the stimulus
in question
• Involves either: body, head, and/or eye movement
• Finding: When animals were confronted with a novel stimulus, they
usually show a strong orienting response towards it
BUT if the same stimulus is repeated continuously ▯causes
habituation and orienting responses diminishes
Habituation ▯reflects gradual decrease in responses causing
cortical arousal in the Reticular Activating System (RAS)
Part I: What is Covert Orienting?
Covert Orienting
The moving of attention that people can’t see PSYC 330
March 11 , 2014
It is something that is associated with moving our attention independently of where our
eyes are pointing
Looking straight at something, but focusing (allocating) your attention elsewhere
Covert vs. Overt Orienting
Covert Orienting
• Shifts of attention not associated with any directly observable body
movements
• Peripheral vision
• E.g. Helmholtz covertly oriented his attention to locations within a
stimulus display while overtly maintaining the position of his eyes and
gaze toward the central fixation point
• E.g. Looking at straight at one stimulus but actually focusing attention to
another stimulus in the background
• Key Point: You covertly orienting attention way faster than overtly
orienting attention
Faster attentional shifting
Visual attention is suspended for a few milliseconds when shifting
attention
It is more efficient
Overt Orienting
• Shifts of attention with detectable body movements
• Other people can see what you are focusing your attention to
• It is noticeable
• E.g. Saccadic Eye Movements ▯Moving our eyes
Jump and Rest eye movements
We can only make 4 movements per second
We can covertly orient way faster than that
Eye movements are very slow processes relative to other brain
processes
It takes about 220250 milliseconds to execute an eye movement
and then wait while you program the next eye movement before
you can actually move it again (slower process)
It is more efficient to focus our eyes in one direction and have
another attentional focal point somewhere else (like two areas of
visual processing)
Hermann von Helmholtz
Credited with being the first to study attention shifts in a systematic manner
He had a gift of improvisation when constructing models ▯enabled him to conduct a
study about our capacity to shift attention between different locations in visual field
Invented to forerunner to the tachistoscope in the 1930s (Leyden Jar, Dark box, Visual
Display with Letters) PSYC 330
March 11 , 2014
Helmholtz’s Demonstration of Covert Orienting
Landmark Study
He demonstrated that we have the capacity to concentrate attention on a different
portion of the visual field than where our eyes are pointing
Method: Constructed a stimulus display with large letter printed on it
• Illuminated pinhole (in the centre of the display) = fixation point for the
eye
Central Fixation (Attentional Focal Point “Pinhole”) ▯ Shift of Attention (Focused part
of darkened display) ▯ Spark Illumination ▯ After Image (Briefly viewed positive after
image)
Findings: During the brief illumination, the letters in the area where attention had been
concentrated on ▯were the most identifiable
• Notes: Letters in the near the area of the ocular fixation point were
difficult identify ▯Surprising due to the fact that stimuli usually the easiest
to identify at the location that our eyes are pointing to
Explanation: When the locations do not overlap, visual analysis
required for object identification appears to depend on attentional
focus more than on ocular focus (Attentional focus > ocular focus,
when visual analysis is required)
Conclusion: We can voluntarily and selectively concentrate
attention on a stimulus at a particular location without making eye
movements (adjusting ocular locus) while at the same time
excluding attention from stimuli at other locations
- The attention is free to direct itself by a conscious and
voluntary effort upon any selected portion of a dark field of
view
- The attentional focal point can be shifted independently of
“ocular fixation” (where our eyes are pointing to)
Ocular Focus and Attentional Focus
Ocular Focus: Focus that directs attention when pointing with our eyes.
Attentional Focus: Focus that directs attention covertly (without pointing with our
eyes)
There are two separate regions in the brain for ocular focus and attentional focus
Summary of Helmholtz’s Discovery:
We can shift attention independently of ocular focus
Visual analysis depends more on where we are attending than where our eyes are
pointing
William James emphasized in his textbook “Principles of Psychology” (18901950) ▯
this was “one of the most important observations for a future theory of attention”
• Attention can be shifted voluntarily or captured involuntarily by external
sensory events PSYC 330
March 11 , 2014
• Voluntary shifts as part of the “intellectual domain” and involuntary shifts
are part of the “sensory domain”
Peripheral Vision:
The vision area around you
You are attending to the side of your vision (looking through the corner of your eyes)
Part II: Studying Covert Orienting Attention Shifts with Location Cueing
Tasks that involve some form of location cueing about impending the onset of target
item interest
Researchers were concerned about monitoring eye movements using location cueing to
study attention shifts ▯it is difficult to verify if attention was shifted independently of eye
fixation
How to study Covert Orienting?
Involves location cueing tasks
Require subjects to move their attention that is cued
Experiments in the 1980s1990s
People were not aware that it makes a big difference what type of cue you use
Our attention is like a spotlight
• Idea was really accessible ▯more understanding
• Attracted more questions and research:
Is the spotlight small or large?
Can we change the size of the spotlight if we need to?
When we move our attention – do we leave it turned on?
Is there only one spotlight or do we have multiple spotlights?
Sperling Study: Example of Location Cue Task ▯A Visual Memory (Iconic Memory)
Study
Subjects see 3 rows of letters (top, middle and bottom rows) with a tscope
(tachistoscope) for a brief period time (200 ms250 ms) followed by a blank screen
(duration varied) and then subjects heard an auditory cue (high, medium or low pitched
tone)
• Auditory cue told the subjects which row of letters to report on
(letters were already gone)
High pitched tone ▯report top row of letters
Medium pitched tone ▯report middle row of letters
Low pitched tone ▯report the bottom row of letters
• If the auditory cue was presented very shortly after the letters were
taken away
If the tone is presented 10 ms after the letters were taken away ▯
Easy recall
Experimenter’s Goal: How long can we delay the auditory cue
before it is useless PSYC 330
March 11 , 2014
Point of Study: Even in the 1960s, people were using location cue
experiment (auditory cues)
Location Cue Tasks
Michael Posner was credited for developing the location cueing task for studying the
orienting of attention
Michael Posner
Developed a location cueing task
Used to study covert orienting
There are many variations, but most have:
• A central fixation point that subjects must continually direct their eyes
toward throughout each experimental trial
• A visually presented target item to which subjects must respond
• A location cue that is presented to the left or to the right of the fixation
point
The Posner “Cueing” Task: “Posner’s Location Cue Paradigm”
Simple tasks ▯lot of different populations ( groups of people) who can do this task
Detection task (reactiontime) ▯Subject has to press a button as soon as they see the
target
Method:
• Subjects are presented a screen with a fixation point in the centre that they
should direct their attention to
• 1000 ms later they see the location cue (i.e. a horizontal line on the right
side of the screen)
• 100 ms later they see a target (i.e. blue circle)
Findings: Presenting a location cue just before the target is presented, makes responses
to the onset of the target even faster (speeds up responses to the target)
Key Point of Experiment: Look at how people can move their attention around
independently to where their eyes are pointing
Types of Location Cueing Tasks:
• Two Categories: Direct Location Cues and Symbolic Location Cues
Different types of Location Cues
Direct Cue vs. Symbolic Cue
Symbolic Cue: A type of symbol that prepares us to be exposed to a target stimulus
(can be valid or invalid)
• E.g. An arrow pointing to the location of the cue (valid), an arrow pointing
to the opposite location of a cue (invalid)
Neutral Cue: Cue for a target that is coming but not specifying the direction or location
“Get ready cue”
Response is faster when cue is aligned with target (valid cue) PSYC 330
March 11 , 2014
Response is slower when cue is not aligned with target (invalid
cue)
• Cue Validity “No Cues/Neutral Cues”: Comparing a neutral response
time cue to a base line valid response time cue ▯beneficial to comparing
response times of conditions with no location cue with conditions with
valid location cue
• Neutral Location Cues and Mean Response Times: Slower than valid
cue (benefit cueing) but faster than invalid cue (cost cueing)
• Invalid cue slows us down, and valid cues speed us up
Key Point: We get significant decrease in response time to the
target when presented with valid response cues ▯Becomes faster
when presented with a valid cue
Mean Invalid Cue Response Time vs. Mean Valid Cue Response Time
Finding: It shows how much benefit you get when presenting a location cue prior to a
target
Mean Valid Cues: 270 ms
Mean Invalid Cues: 290 ms
Summary of Types of Location Cues
CostBenefit Cueing Analysis:
• When location cues are valid, response time is faster, more accurate and
more efficient, relative to the neutral cue condition (Benefit Cueing)
• When location cues are invalid, response time is slower, less accurate and
less efficient, relative to the neutral cue condition (Cost Cueing)
Variations of the Posner Task:
Sometimes the location cue can be misleading (invalid cue), the target doesn’t appear
where the location cue says it will appear
Method: Like the original task, except the symbolic location cues presented could
either be valid, neutral or invalid symbols
• Target shows where the cue was shown (Valid Cue Trial)
• Target may not show where the cue was shown (Invalid Cue Trial)
Fixation point ▯1000 milliseconds ▯Fixation Point + Location Cue
▯100 milliseconds ▯Fixation Point + Target ▯Response is made
(Pushing the button every time you see the target)
Point of Study: To study how fast subjects can shift their attention and react in
response to seeing the target
Result: When there is symbolic cue, it takes more mental capacity compared to direct
cues because you have to shift your attention to where the symbol is pointing
The Lamp Light Theory of Vision
Philosopher Alcmaeon “Emission Theory” (450 BCE)
• Proposed: Optic nerves function as lightbearing paths to the brain
because, when he got hit in the head he saw bright spots (“Phosphene”) ▯ PSYC 330
March 11 , 2014
therefore, the eyes must contain light (fire), and that this light is necessary
for vision (the idea of light in the eye was the basis for theories of vision
beyond the Renaissance)
• Suggests that we have light inside our heads/eyes that illuminates what we
are looking at
• Although theory was proven wrong ▯it gave “ light” to the idea of an
attentional metaphor “The Spotlight Metaphor of Attention” ▯Hernandez
Peon 1964
Spotlight Metaphor of Attention
Metaphor: Conceptualizes the notion of focused attention and how it might be shifted
sequentially to different locations in the visual field
In the 1960s and 1970s, people started to look at spatial attention ▯thought that we
might have an attentional spotlight and it moves within a map in a brain area
• Maps = mental representations
• We have many spatial maps in our heads – in different areas (visual areas:
parietal cortex and etc.)
• We have more than 40 different spatial representations of our visual world
Proposed Idea: Some of these maps used for attentional processing, might be a
spotlight that gets moved around
• We have attentional focal point that moves around as we direct our eyes
“shifting attention”
• Shifting attention from one location to another is equivalent to moving a
light beam from one place to another
Study (Same as Posner’s Task):
“Spotlight” moves faster when cue is valid with target and moves slower when cues is
invalid with target
Focused attention can be shifted to cued locations like a moving spotlight
The shift of the spotlight of attention might be cued to locations much like a moving
spotlight ▯the shift of the spotlight of attention might be initiated to the expected target
location before the target appears there, and thereby produce a response time benefit on
validcue trials
• Valid Cue Trial: When there is a location cue that is present we get a
“head start” before we even notice it because of the attentional spotlight ▯
attentional shift is faster
• Invalid Cue Trial: Cue is presented, subject believes the cue and shifts
attention to that area, but the target is presented in the other side ▯need to
do a time consuming shift of their attentional focal point all the way to the
correct side ▯takes more time “ false start”
Lawrence Ward (UBC)
Replicated the experiment using auditory location and visual location cues
Combined auditory cue with visual target
Combined visual cue with auditory target PSYC 330
March 11 , 2014
Findings: Can get the same pattern of data with visual cues and auditory targets or
auditory cues and visual targets
• If you cue a location with an auditory stimulus at a location and then
present a visual target close to that location ▯beneficial cueing effect ( a
sound can be a beneficial cue for speeding up responses to visual targets)
• If you cue a location with a visual stimulus at a location and then present
an auditory target close to that location ▯beneficial cueing effect ( a visual
stimulus can be a beneficial cue for speeding up responses to auditory
targets)
• Cross Modal Posner Task:
2 Different Sensory Modalities: Vision and Hearing
Stimuli from the visual modality and the auditory modality can be
used as cues for each other
Auditory location cues can affect responses to visual targets and
visual location cues can affect responses to auditory targets
How are they mediated and are they separate?
- There is only one kind of attention, there isn’t a separate visual
attention or auditory attention because the same set of brain
areas are active whether the stimuli is visual or auditory
Key Point: There’s only one kind of attentional resource pool because visual and
auditory attention have the same brain areas
• The brain has a common attention orienting network for all types of
sensory inputs
• It works as a single attention system
Part III: Direct Location and Symbolic Location Cueing Effects
Voluntary and Reflexive Attentional Shifts
Direct Cues are close to the expected target location; they trigger stimulus attention
shifts, which are more sensory and less cognitive (usually underlines, outline boxes, or
bar markers that are presented in close proximity to the expected target location
• Peripheral, pull, or exogenous cues
• When a sudden event catches your attention, causing you to reflexively
shift your attention to that stimulus
Symbolic Cues are used to initiate goaldriven attention shifts, initiated by cognitive
operations and are voluntary (usually presented as arrows or digits that subjects
understand to indicate expected target location)
• Central, push, or endogenous cues
• When you decide to do something that causes you to dependently shift
your attention
• They are both different because they have different cues (symbolic vs.
direct)
Gaze Cues: A form of symbolic cue that operates and produces the same data as
arrows, digits and etc. PSYC 330
March 11 , 2014
• The data from this source of experiment can be analyzed using cost
benefit analysis, if you include a neutral cue condition
• E.g. Using “eyes to direct picture” as a cue to check if it would have the
same results as the arrows
• E.g. Babies are sensitive to gazelocation cues, always attending to
mother’s gaze.
Stimulus driven (involuntary “reflexive” attention shift) vs. Goal driven (voluntary
attention shift)
Experiment One: Posner Task + Memory Task
Method: Subjects who used direct cues sometimes:
• Did a Posner task involving only direct cues
• Did the direct cueing (Posner task) and a concurrent task (holding some
information, i.e. digits, in memory) ▯Extra cognitive load ( memory load
component to concurrent task)
Results:
• In the direct cue condition, when holding digits in memory at the same
time ▯made no difference, had the same beneficial effect of location
cueing even when there was extra cognitive load from doing the
concurrent task
• When people are doing the symbolic cueing task, if they are doing it alone
▯get the same beneficial effect of location cueing from valid cues
(symbolic or direct cues)
• BUT! If people are doing the symbolic cueing task and have extra
cognitive load in the concurrent task ▯the benefit of symbolic cues
decreases (this means that symbolic cues are more cognitive)
• Direct cue and memory load (sensory effects) ▯Big benefit from direct
cue
• Symbolic cue and memory load (cognitive effects) ▯Less benefit from
symbolic cue (requires cognitive resource)
Experiment Two: Delays between Cue Onset and Target Onset (CTOA = Cue Target
Onset Asynchrony)
Method: Subjects are required to make a simple decision response as quickly as
possible after noticing the target’s appearance
Researcher’s Goal: Playing around with the delay when the cue is presented and target
is presented to see how long it will take for the subjects to react
• Increase delay will decrease benefit of direct cue
• Increase delay will
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